{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T15:23:10Z","timestamp":1790263390033,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1837","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1450,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1450,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1450,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]],"date-time":"2021-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632096000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["DEB 1316223"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEB 1316223"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01Al156866"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01Al156866"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["DEB 1316223"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEB 1316223"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01Al156866"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01Al156866"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Zoonotic disease outbreaks are an important threat to human health and numerous drivers have been recognized as contributing to their increasing frequency. Identifying and quantifying relationships between drivers of zoonotic disease outbreaks and outbreak severity is critical to developing targeted zoonotic disease surveillance and outbreak prevention strategies. However, quantitative studies of outbreak drivers on a global scale are lacking. Attributes of countries such as press freedom, surveillance capabilities and latitude also bias global outbreak data. To illustrate these issues, we review the characteristics of the 100 largest outbreaks in a global dataset (n = 4463 bacterial and viral zoonotic outbreaks), and compare them with 200 randomly chosen background controls. Large outbreaks tended to have more drivers than background outbreaks and were related to large-scale environmental and demographic factors such as changes in vector abundance, human population density, unusual weather conditions and water contamination. Pathogens of large outbreaks were more likely to be viral and vector-borne than background outbreaks. Overall, our case study shows that the characteristics of large zoonotic outbreaks with thousands to millions of cases differ consistently from those of more typical outbreaks. We also discuss the limitations of our work, hoping to pave the way for more comprehensive future studies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Infectious disease macroecology: parasite diversity and dynamics across the globe\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0535","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]],"date-time":"2021-09-20T03:07:37Z","timestamp":1632107257000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Characteristics of the 100 largest modern zoonotic disease outbreaks"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"376","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1995-5715","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Patrick R.","family":"Stephens","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Odum School of Ecology and Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Georgia 1 , ,"},{"name":"Athens, 30602 GA, USA 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"N.","family":"Gottdenker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Odum School of Ecology and Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Georgia 1 , ,"},{"name":"Athens, 30602 GA, USA 1 , ,"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine 2 , ,"},{"name":"University of Georgia 2 , ,"},{"name":"Athens, 30602 GA, USA 2 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9518-3553","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"A. M.","family":"Schatz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Odum School of Ecology and Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Georgia 1 , ,"},{"name":"Athens, 30602 GA, USA 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8549-0587","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"J. P.","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Odum School of Ecology and Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Georgia 1 , ,"},{"name":"Athens, 30602 GA, USA 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4646-1235","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"John M.","family":"Drake","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Odum School of Ecology and Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Georgia 1 , ,"},{"name":"Athens, 30602 GA, USA 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010105303788200_RSTB20200535C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61728-0","article-title":"Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Lozano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026010105303788200_RSTB20200535C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61684-5","article-title":"Prediction and prevention of the next pandemic zoonosis","volume":"380","author":"Morse","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026010105303788200_RSTB20200535C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.12143","article-title":"The threat of disease increases as species move toward extinction","volume":"27","author":"Heard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Conserv. 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