{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T23:39:39Z","timestamp":1790638779040,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1876","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/-\/media\/journals\/author\/Licence-to-Publish-20062019-final.pdf"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679270400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Bildung und Forschung","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Bildung und Forschung","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Anisogamy\u2014the size dimorphism of gametes\u2014is the defining difference between the male and female sexual strategies. Game-theoretic thinking led to the first convincing explanation for the evolutionary origins of anisogamy in the 1970s. Since then, formal game-theoretic models have continued to refine our understanding of when and why anisogamy should evolve. Such models typically presume that the earliest anisogamous organisms had separate sexes. However, in most taxa, there is no empirical evidence to support this assumption. Here, we present a model of the coevolution of gamete size and sex allocation, which allows for anisogamy to emerge alongside either hermaphroditism or separate sexes. We show that hermaphroditic anisogamy can evolve directly from isogamous ancestors when the average size of spawning groups is small and fertilization is relatively efficient. Sex allocation under hermaphroditism becomes increasingly female-biased as group size decreases and the degree of anisogamy increases. When spawning groups are very small, our model also predicts the existence of complex isogamous organisms in which individuals allocate resources equally to two large gamete types. We discuss common, but potentially unwarranted, assumptions in the literature that could be relaxed in future models.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Half a century of evolutionary games: a synthesis of theory, application and future directions\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2022.0283","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,19]],"date-time":"2023-03-19T20:05:25Z","timestamp":1679256325000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Hermaphroditic origins of anisogamy"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"378","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7306-170X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jonathan M.","family":"Henshaw","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology I 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Freiburg 1 , ,"},{"name":"Hauptstra\u00dfe 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Bittlingmaier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology I 1 , ,"},{"name":"University of Freiburg 1 , ,"},{"name":"Hauptstra\u00dfe 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany 1 , ,"},{"name":"Theoretical and Experimental Ecology Station, CNRS 2 ,"},{"name":"2 route du CNRS, 09200 Moulis, France 2 ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukas","family":"Sch\u00e4rer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoological Institute, Department of Environmental Sciences 3 , ,"},{"name":"University of Basel 3 , ,"},{"name":"Basel CH-4051, Switzerland 3 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010106215533900_RSTB20220283C1","first-page":"15","article-title":"The evolution of sexes, anisogamy, and sexual systems","volume-title":"The evolution of primary sexual characters in animals","author":"Leonard","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026010106215533900_RSTB20220283C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.2010.00153.x","article-title":"Having sex, yes, but with whom? 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