{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T03:43:50Z","timestamp":1778903030378,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1911","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]],"date-time":"2024-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724025600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]],"date-time":"2024-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724025600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000925","name":"John Templeton Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000925","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Skilled activity is a complex mix of automatized action, changed attention patterns, cognitive strategies and physiological adaptations developed within a community of practice. Drawing on physiological and ethnographic research on freediving, this article argues that skill acquisition demonstrates the variety of mechanisms that link biological and cultural processes to produce culturally shaped forms of embodiment. In particular, apneists alter phenotypic expression through patterned practices that canalize development, exaggerating the dive response, developing resistance to elevated carbon dioxide levels (hypercapnia) and accommodating hydrostatic pressure at depth. The community of divers provides technical advice and helps to orient individuals\u2019 motivations. Some biological processes are phenomenologically accessible, but others are sub-aware and must be accessed indirectly through behaviour or altered interactions with the environment. The close analysis of embodied skills like freediving illustrates how phenotypic plasticity is inflected by culturally patterned behaviours. Divers do developmental work on bodily traits like the dive response to achieve more dramatic performance, even if they cannot directly control all elements of the neurological and physiological responses. The example of expert freediving illustrates the imbrication of biology and culture in embodiment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Minds in movement: embodied cognition in the age of artificial intelligence\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2023.0150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]],"date-time":"2024-08-19T04:01:46Z","timestamp":1724040106000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Skill building in freediving as an example of embodied culture"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"379","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8243-9257","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Greg","family":"Downey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Science, Macquarie University , Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_7_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.an.22.100193.001025"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_3_2","first-page":"172","volume-title":"Anthropological theory today","author":"Csordas T","year":"1999","unstructured":"Csordas T . 1999 The body\u2019s career in anthropology. In Anthropological theory today (ed. H Moore ), pp. 172\u2013185. Malden, MA: Polity Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_4_2","volume-title":"Anthropology, sport, and culture","author":"Sands RR","year":"1999","unstructured":"Sands RR . 1999 Anthropology, sport, and culture. New York, NY: Bergin and Garvey."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/aa.2003.105.1.6"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.20463"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adl1517"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_8_2","volume-title":"Unwrapping the sacred bundle: reflections on the disciplining of anthropology","author":"Clifford J","year":"2005","unstructured":"Clifford J , Lederman R . 2005 Unwrapping the sacred bundle: reflections on the disciplining of anthropology. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. (doi:10.1515\/9780822386841). See https:\/\/www.degruyter.com\/document\/doi\/10.1515\/9780822386841\/html."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1548-1433.2009.01115.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139198394"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118962954"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/685684"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_13_2","volume-title":"The two cultures","author":"Snow CP","year":"1964","unstructured":"Snow CP . 1964 The two cultures. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9655.12855"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0369"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03085147300000003"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_17_2","first-page":"21","article-title":"From complementarity to obviation: on dissolving the boundaries between social and biological anthropology, archaeology and psychology","volume":"1998","author":"Ingold T","unstructured":"Ingold T . From complementarity to obviation: on dissolving the boundaries between social and biological anthropology, archaeology and psychology. Z. Ethnol. 1998 , 21\u201352.","journal-title":"Z. Ethnol."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_18_2","volume-title":"The perception of the environment: essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill","author":"Ingold T","year":"2000","unstructured":"Ingold T . 2000 The perception of the environment: essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill. London, UK: Routledge."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3033974"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-6300(1997)9:3<303::AID-AJHB4>3.0.CO;2-Z"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08723"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/03635465020300011701"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2005.09.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.572"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1055"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2010.08.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/etho.12387"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108695374.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9655.13607"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-anthro-102116-041253"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-5687(68)90073-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.162.3857.1020"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.710429"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_34_2","volume-title":"Manual of freediving: underwater on a single breath","author":"Pelizzari U","year":"2004","unstructured":"Pelizzari U , Tovaglieri S . 2004 Manual of freediving: underwater on a single breath. Reddick, FL: Idelson-Gnochi Limited Publishers."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-924361"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_36_2","article-title":"Injuries and fatalities related to freediving: a case report and literature review","volume":"14","author":"Allen MF","year":"2022","unstructured":"Allen MF , Allen DE . 2022 Injuries and fatalities related to freediving: a case report and literature review. Cureus 14 , e30353. (doi:10.7759\/cureus.30353)","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511815355"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803932"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9781350197725.ch-005"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11097-010-9178-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12030"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.03.054"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_43_2","first-page":"27","article-title":"Underwater working times in two groups of traditional apnea divers in Asia: the AMA and the Bajau","volume":"41","author":"Schagatay E","year":"2011","unstructured":"Schagatay E , Lodin-Sundstr\u00f6m A , Abrahamsson E . 2011 Underwater working times in two groups of traditional apnea divers in Asia: the AMA and the Bajau. Diving Hyperb. Med. 41 , 27\u201330.","journal-title":"Diving Hyperb. Med."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(03)00290-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_45_2","volume-title":"Physiology of breath-hold diving and the ama of japan: papers","author":"Rahn H","year":"1965","unstructured":"Rahn H , Yokoyama T (eds). 1965 Physiology of breath-hold diving and the ama of japan: papers. Washington, DC: National Academies Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1618\/jhes.17.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/physiologyonline.1987.2.3.79"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00524"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_49_2","first-page":"125","article-title":"Human breath-hold diving ability and the underlying physiology","volume":"29","author":"Schagatay E","year":"2014","unstructured":"Schagatay E . 2014 Human breath-hold diving ability and the underlying physiology. Hum. Evol. 29 , 125\u2013140.","journal-title":"Hum. Evol."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1968.25.5.542"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1990.69.3.932"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2002.tb01720.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.182972"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00020.2013"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00877.2020"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.639377"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-021-04664-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210050668"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02691277"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01819543"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1113\/EP086269"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-097X.2011.01070.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.127530"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_64_2","first-page":"13","article-title":"Diving response and apneic time in humans","volume":"25","author":"Schagatay E","year":"1998","unstructured":"Schagatay E , Andersson J . 1998 Diving response and apneic time in humans. Undersea Hyperb. Med. 25 , 13\u201319.","journal-title":"Undersea Hyperb. Med."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_65_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2012.229864"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.2009.01982.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1569-9048(02)00133-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1963.18.1.30"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1974.37.3.291"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2012.03.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_71_2","first-page":"183","volume-title":"Physiology of breath-hold diving and the AMA of Japan: papers","author":"Dejours P","year":"1965","unstructured":"Dejours P . 1965 Hazards of hypoxia during diving. In Physiology of breath-hold diving and the AMA of Japan: papers (eds H Rahn , T Yokoyama ), pp. 183\u2013193. Washington, DC: National Academies Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_72_2","first-page":"88","article-title":"Predicting performance in competitive apnoea diving. part I: static apnoea","volume":"39","author":"Schagatay E","year":"2009","unstructured":"Schagatay E . 2009 Predicting performance in competitive apnoea diving. part I: static apnoea. Diving Hyperb. Med. 39 , 88\u201399.","journal-title":"Diving Hyperb. Med."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_73_2","volume-title":"AIDA freediving manual 2","author":"Christen O","year":"2015","unstructured":"Christen O . 2015 AIDA freediving manual 2. AIDA. See https:\/\/static1.squarespace.com\/static\/588166b5579fb3ec786c301f\/t\/5a61839ce2c483c49732ee39\/1516340192707\/AIDA2_Manual.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.2005.031625"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_75_2","first-page":"527","article-title":"Carbon dioxide response and breath-hold times in underwater hockey players","volume":"14","author":"Davis FM","year":"1987","unstructured":"Davis FM , Graves MP , Guy HJ , Prisk GK , Tanner TE . 1987 Carbon dioxide response and breath-hold times in underwater hockey players. Undersea Biomed. Res. 14 , 527\u2013534.","journal-title":"Undersea Biomed. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1963.18.6.1071"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2170\/jjphysiol.31.187"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1025930"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_79_2","first-page":"143","article-title":"Effects of repeated apneas on apneic time and diving response in non-divers","volume":"26","author":"Schagatay E","year":"1999","unstructured":"Schagatay E , van Kampen M , Andersson J . 1999 Effects of repeated apneas on apneic time and diving response in non-divers. Undersea Hyperb. Med. 26 , 143\u2013149.","journal-title":"Undersea Hyperb. Med."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2023.104168"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_81_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2007.06.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0267"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_83_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.28920\/dhm51.1.44-52"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_84_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1357034X04041760"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_85_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00221.2003"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_86_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00055.2001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_87_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200232060-00002"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_88_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-020-04471-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_89_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00173"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_90_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-004-1224-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-020-04565-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_92_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2019.04.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_93_2","first-page":"237","volume-title":"Physiology of breath-hold diving and the Ama of Japan: papers","author":"Schaefer KE","year":"1965","unstructured":"Schaefer KE . 1965 Adaptation to breath-hold diving. In Physiology of breath-hold diving and the Ama of Japan: papers (eds H Rahn , T Yokoyama ), pp. 237\u2013252. Washington, DC: National Academies Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_94_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-006-0156-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_95_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-008-0731-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_96_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00075.2006"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_97_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1843.2010.01791.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_98_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wem.2014.04.010"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_99_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000495757"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_100_2","first-page":"837","article-title":"Prevalence of acute respiratory symptoms in breath-hold divers","volume":"39","author":"Cialoni D","year":"2012","unstructured":"Cialoni D , Sponsiello N , Marabotti C , Marroni A , Pieri M , Maggiorelli F , Tonerini M , Frammartino B . 2012 Prevalence of acute respiratory symptoms in breath-hold divers. Undersea Hyperb. Med. 39 , 837\u2013844.","journal-title":"Undersea Hyperb. Med."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_101_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2004.024562"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_102_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/eth.1990.18.1.02a00010"}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.2023.0150","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1098\/rstb.2023.0150","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.2023.0150","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T21:23:37Z","timestamp":1778621017000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/109549"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1911","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1098\/rstb.2023.0150"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2023.0150","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-11-22","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-03-26","order":1,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-04-02","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-08-19","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"20230150"}}