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Trans. R. Soc. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The opium poppy (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Papaver somniferum<\/jats:italic>\n                    L.) is one of the most important plants in human history. It is the main source of opiates used as analgesic medicines or psychotropic drugs, the latter related to addiction problems, illegal trafficking and geopolitical issues. Poppyseed is also used in cooking. The prehistoric origins, domestication and cultivation spread of the opium poppy remain unresolved. Traditionally,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Papaver setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    has been considered the wild ancestor with early cultivation presumed to have occurred in the Western Mediterranean region, where\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    is autochthonous. Other theories suggest that\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">somniferum<\/jats:italic>\n                    may have been introduced by Southwest Asian early farmers as a weed. To investigate these hypotheses, we analysed 190 accessions from 15\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Papaver<\/jats:italic>\n                    species using genotype-by-sequencing and geometric morphometric (GMM) techniques. Our analysis revealed that\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    is the only taxa genetically close to\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">somniferum and can be better described as a subspecies<\/jats:italic>\n                    . The domesticated plants are, however, distinct from\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Additionally, GMM analysis of seeds also revealed morphological differences between\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">somniferum<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Some phenotypically wild\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    accessions exhibited intermediate genetic features, suggesting introgression events. Two major populations were found in\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">somniferum<\/jats:italic>\n                    and, to some extent, these correspond to differences in seed form. These two populations may reflect recent attempts to breed varieties rich in opiates, as opposed to varieties used for poppyseed production. This study supports the idea that opium poppy cultivation began in the Western Mediterranean, with\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">setigerum<\/jats:italic>\n                    as the wild progenitor, although some wild varieties are likely to be feral forms, which can confound domestication studies.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Unravelling domestication: multi-disciplinary perspectives on human and non-human relationships in the past, present and future\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0198","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,15]],"date-time":"2025-05-15T03:04:12Z","timestamp":1747278252000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The origins and spread of the opium poppy (\n                    <i>Papaver somniferum<\/i>\n                    L.) revealed by genomics and seed morphometrics"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"380","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4080-2353","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rui S. R.","family":"Machado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ICArEHB, Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution Human Behaviour, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas","place":["Faro, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2742-6349","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Vincent","family":"Bonhomme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, Universit\u00e9 Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE","place":["Montpellier, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ra\u00fcl","family":"Soteras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Natural Sciences, German Archaeological Institute (DAI)","place":["Berlin, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0673-0704","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Angele","family":"Jeanty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, Universit\u00e9 Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE","place":["Montpellier, France"]},{"name":"UMRAASPE\/BIOARCH, Mus\u00e9um National d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN), Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Alliance Sorbonne Universit\u00e9","place":["Paris, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3633-9829","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Laurent","family":"Bouby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, Universit\u00e9 Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE","place":["Montpellier, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4515-1649","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Allowen","family":"Evin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, Universit\u00e9 Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE","place":["Montpellier, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9118-7397","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"M. Joao","family":"Fernandes Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICArEHB, Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution Human Behaviour, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas","place":["Faro, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3038-4434","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sandra","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED \u2013 Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE \u2013 Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas","place":["Faro, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0533-5788","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ferran","family":"Antol\u00edn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Natural Sciences, German Archaeological Institute (DAI)","place":["Berlin, Germany"]},{"name":"Environmental Sciences, Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Science (IPNA\/IPAS), University of Basel","place":["Basel, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7854-9170","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Aur\u00e9lie","family":"Salavert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UMRAASPE\/BIOARCH, Mus\u00e9um National d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN), Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Alliance Sorbonne Universit\u00e9","place":["Paris, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5038-073X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hugo Rafael","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICArEHB, Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution Human Behaviour, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas","place":["Faro, Portugal"]},{"name":"Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias Humanas e Sociais, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas","place":["Faro, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_8_2_2","volume-title":"Milk of paradise: a history of opium","author":"Inglis L","year":"2018","unstructured":"Inglis L. 2018 Milk of paradise: a history of opium. 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