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Trans. R. Soc. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Ancestral sea gardens in British Columbia (BC) were managed to provide high long-term yields for millennia before European contact. While the ubiquity and productivity of sea gardens are well known, the ecological and cultural impact of the transition from ancestral to settler-colonial fisheries has not been investigated in a historical ecology context. Here, we examine that transition in the BC clam fishery, documenting the social and legal mechanisms used to dispossess Indigenous clam harvesters and identifying the ecological impacts of settler-colonial fisheries. Our results document a rapid change in clam tending, harvesting and processing that relied on Indigenous land, knowledge, labour and skill being directed away from traditional harvesting and towards unsustainable catches for commercial gain. We identify evidence of serial depletions and declines in relative abundance as measured by spatial shifts in harvesting, declines in catch per unit of effort, and a transition from native to non-native clam species. Finally, we identify additional evidence of the legacy of Indigenous tending 50 years after the start of the commercial fishery, demonstrating sustained productivity on beaches that continued to undergo Indigenous harvesting. Ongoing efforts in BC aim to restore ancestral clam beaches and tending practices. Historical insights can play a crucial role in restoration efforts by identifying ecological baselines and helping support the Indigenous reclamation of ocean spaces and the responsibility to tend them.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Shifting seas: understanding deep-time human impacts on marine ecosystems\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]],"date-time":"2025-07-10T07:05:59Z","timestamp":1752131159000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Ecological legacy of Indigenous dispossession: disruption of ancestral sea gardens by commercial clam fisheries in British Columbia, 1882\u20131985"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"380","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8894-2195","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Patrick","family":"Hayes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of History, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada"},{"name":"Trinity Centre for Environmental Humanities, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3423-8976","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Skye","family":"Augustine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University","place":["Burnaby, Canada V5A 1S6"]},{"name":"Centre for Indigenous Fisheries, The University of British Columbia","place":["Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Hatch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western Washington University","place":["Bellingham, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2860-3312","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Loren","family":"McClenachan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of History, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_8_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1059199"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10244"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jfb.15000"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2979.2012.00465.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.12452"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29818-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cag.12084"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7183\/0002-7316.80.2.236"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5751\/ES-08747-210420"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211194","article-title":"3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the northwest coast of North America","volume":"14","author":"Smith NF","year":"2019","unstructured":"Smith NF, Lepofsky D, Toniello G, Holmes K, Wilson L, Neudorf CM, Roberts C. 2019 3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the northwest coast of North America. PLoS One 14, e0211194. (doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0211194)","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0091235"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_13_2","unstructured":"Cline A. 2024 Coast Salish foods gathered on clam gardens and rocky intertidal beaches. MS thesis Western Washington University. https:\/\/cedar.wwu.edu\/wwuet\/1284\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_14_2","unstructured":"Salter N. 2013 Ancient clam gardens magnify bivalve production by moderating temperature and enhancing sediment carbonate. MA thesis Simon Fraser University Vancouver. https:\/\/summit.sfu.ca\/item\/18596."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_15_2","unstructured":"Shaver ER. 2023 Indigenous sea gardens can buffer impacts of contemporary heatwaves. 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C Stud."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/facets-2021-0092"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_20_2","unstructured":"Lyall G. 2022 Turning the tide: clams and colonialism in the Salish Sea 1925\u20131994. PhD thesis University of Victoria Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.11085"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_22_2","volume-title":"A high-born Nakoaktok [Kwakwaka\u2019wakw] clam-digger [photograph], R10630-6-1-E, box CRT 030, item no. PF 10","author":"Curtis ES","year":"1915","unstructured":"Curtis ES. 1915 A high-born Nakoaktok [Kwakwaka\u2019wakw] clam-digger [photograph], R10630-6-1-E, box CRT 030, item no. PF 10. 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Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_31_2","first-page":"67","volume-title":"Report of the Provincial Fisheries Department for the year ended December 31st, 1939","author":"Quayle DB","year":"1940","unstructured":"Quayle DB. 1940 A preliminary report on the British Columbia clam investigation. In Report of the Provincial Fisheries Department for the year ended December 31st, 1939, pp. 67\u201371. Victoria, Canada: Province of British Columbia."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2007.01.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_33_2","first-page":"213","article-title":"Paralytic shellfish toxins in Puget Sound, Washington State","volume":"22","author":"Trainer V","year":"2003","unstructured":"Trainer V, Eberhart BTL, Wekell JC, Adams NG, Hanson L, Cox F, Dowell J. 2003 Paralytic shellfish toxins in Puget Sound, Washington State. J. Shellfish Res. 22, 213\u2013223.","journal-title":"J. Shellfish Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_34_2","unstructured":"Garcia J. 2023 Learning from traditional ecological knowledge: paralytic shellfish toxins in butter clams. MS thesis Western Washington University. https:\/\/cedar.wwu.edu\/wwuet\/1182\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/md19100568"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2012.06.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/area.12000"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_38_2","unstructured":"Fleming TB. 2019 Health risk and environmental justice for Indigenous shellfish harvesters in British Columbia Canada. Masters thesis University of Saskatchewan."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_39_2","volume-title":"The clam fisheries of British Columbia","author":"Quayle DB","year":"1972","unstructured":"Quayle DB, Bourne N. 1972 The clam fisheries of British Columbia. 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BC Stud. 181, 83\u2013103.","journal-title":"BC Stud."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_42_2","unstructured":"Photograph taken by Bryant DeRoy in 2024 and shared with me via email - used with his permission"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_43_2","unstructured":"Smith HI. 1928 Nootka Indians of British Columbia [Film] ISN 100976. Ottawa Canada: Library and Archives Canada\/Canadian Museum of History."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_44_2","volume-title":"Saanich Cannery [photograph], file no.F3000 1Ph - image 3","author":"Wilson A","year":"1933","unstructured":"Wilson A. 1933 Saanich Cannery [photograph], file no.F3000 1Ph - image 3. Saanichton, Canada: Saanich Pioneer Society Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_45_2","unstructured":"Wilson A. 1933 500 tons of Clam Shells at Sidney Cannery [photograph] file no. P981.5.8. Sidney Canada: Sidney Museum and Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_46_2","volume-title":"2014-2020 W\u0331S\u00c1NE\u0106 Clam Garden Restoration Project final report; caring for and kexals-digging clams in the W\u0331S\u00c1NE\u0106 territory","author":"Olsen J","year":"2019","unstructured":"Olsen J. 2019 2014-2020 W\u0331S\u00c1NE\u0106 Clam Garden Restoration Project final report; caring for and kexals-digging clams in the W\u0331S\u00c1NE\u0106 territory. Sidney, Canada: Gulf Island National Park Reserve and Parks Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_47_2","unstructured":"Suttles WP. 1951 The economic life of the Coast Salish of Haro and Rosario Straits. PhD thesis State University of Washington."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-805375-1.00009-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_49_2","volume-title":"Special fishery regulations for BC. Royal Commission on Indian Affairs for the Province of British Columbia, T-3957, RG 10, vol. 11020, file 518","author":"Royal Commission on Indian Affairs","year":"1910","unstructured":"Royal Commission on Indian Affairs. 1910 Special fishery regulations for BC. Royal Commission on Indian Affairs for the Province of British Columbia, T-3957, RG 10, vol. 11020, file 518. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_50_2","unstructured":"Desbarats SJ. 1918 S. J. Desbarats to F. Elworthy 19 September 1918. Legislation - Clam fishery regulations RG23 R217 vol. 976 file 721-4-14 pt 2. Ottawa Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_51_2","volume-title":"Motherwell J. A. 1922 J. A. Motherwell to W. A. Found, 9 November 1922. Legislation - Clam fishery regulations, RG23 R217, vol. 976, file 721-4-14, pt 2","unstructured":"Motherwell J. A. 1922 J. A. Motherwell to W. A. Found, 9 November 1922. Legislation - Clam fishery regulations, RG23 R217, vol. 976, file 721-4-14, pt 2. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_52_2","unstructured":"Bigg M. 2015 Seal Island butter clam population status characteristics and status of the butter clam (Saxidomus gigantea) population at Seal Island B.C. 1940-2013. MA thesis Royal Roads University Victoria Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_53_2","first-page":"47","volume-title":"Invertebrate working papers reviewed by the Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee in 1995. Part 1. Bivalves","author":"Kingzett BC","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kingzett BC, Bourne NF. 1998 Assessment of intertidal clam population surveys at Seal Island, British Columbia, 1940-1992. In Invertebrate working papers reviewed by the Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee in 1995. Part 1. Bivalves (eds BJ Waddell, GE Gillespie, LC Walthers), pp. 47\u2013126. Nanaimo, British Columbia: Fisheries and Oceans Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_54_2","first-page":"87","volume-title":"Provincial Department of Fisheries report for the year 1947","author":"Neave F","year":"1947","unstructured":"Neave F. 1947 Records of clam production. In Provincial Department of Fisheries report for the year 1947, pp. 87\u201389. Victoria, Canada: Province of British Columbia."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_55_2","volume-title":"T. R. L. MacInnes to D. M. MacKay, 18 September 1940. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG 10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2, pt E","author":"MacInnes TRL","year":"1940","unstructured":"MacInnes TRL. 1940 T. R. L. MacInnes to D. M. MacKay, 18 September 1940. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG 10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2, pt E. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_56_2","volume-title":"W. E. Ditchburn to A. H. Lomas, 24 November 1925, Department of Indian affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia: T-16085, RG 10, C-II-2, vol. 11041, file 3-3-5 and 3-3-6, part B","author":"Ditchburn WE","year":"1925","unstructured":"Ditchburn WE. 1925 W. E. Ditchburn to A. H. Lomas, 24 November 1925, Department of Indian affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia: T-16085, RG 10, C-II-2, vol. 11041, file 3-3-5 and 3-3-6, part B. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_57_2","volume-title":"K Robertson to W. E. Ditchburn, 27 October 1930, Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia : T-16111, RG 10, C-II-2, vol. 11298","author":"Robertson K","year":"1930","unstructured":"Robertson K. 1930 K Robertson to W. E. Ditchburn, 27 October 1930, Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia : T-16111, RG 10, C-II-2, vol. 11298. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_58_2","volume-title":"D. M. MacKay to H. Graham, 9 December 1937, Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia : T-16085, RG 10, C-II-2, vol. 11041, file 3-3-5 and 3-3-6, pt B","author":"MacKay DM","year":"1937","unstructured":"MacKay DM. 1937 D. M. MacKay to H. Graham, 9 December 1937, Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia : T-16085, RG 10, C-II-2, vol. 11041, file 3-3-5 and 3-3-6, pt B. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_59_2","volume-title":"List of oyster and clam leases. Department of Fisheries records, ser. GR-0435, vol. 113, file 1130","author":"Department of Fisheries","year":"1911","unstructured":"Department of Fisheries. 1911 List of oyster and clam leases. Department of Fisheries records, ser. GR-0435, vol. 113, file 1130. Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_60_2","volume-title":"Existing clam leases in British Columbia. Department of Fisheries records, ser. GR-0435, box 115, file 1157","author":"Department of Fisheries","year":"1935","unstructured":"Department of Fisheries. 1935 Existing clam leases in British Columbia. Department of Fisheries records, ser. GR-0435, box 115, file 1157. Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_61_2","unstructured":"Allan DJ. 1945 D. J. Allan to Major D. M. MacKay 17 Aug 1945. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia T-3953 RG 10 file 978\/31-2 C. Ottawa Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_62_2","volume-title":"D. M. Mackay to M.S Todd, 25 Nov 1938. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 E","author":"Mackay DM","year":"1938","unstructured":"Mackay DM. 1938 D. M. Mackay to M.S Todd, 25 Nov 1938. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 E. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_63_2","volume-title":"J. A. Motherwell to M.S. Todd\u2019 30 Nov 1938. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 E","author":"Motherwell JA","year":"1938","unstructured":"Motherwell JA. 1938 J. A. Motherwell to M.S. Todd\u2019 30 Nov 1938. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 E. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_64_2","volume-title":"M. S. Todd to D.M. MacKay, 2 Dec 1938. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 E","author":"Todd MS","year":"1938","unstructured":"Todd MS. 1938 M. S. Todd to D.M. MacKay, 2 Dec 1938. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 E. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_65_2","volume-title":"M. S. Todd to D.M. MacKay, 27 May 1943. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 C","author":"Todd MS","year":"1943","unstructured":"Todd MS. 1943 M. S. Todd to D.M. MacKay, 27 May 1943. Department of Indian Affairs: Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, T-3953, RG10, vol. 11003, file 978\/31-2 C. Ottawa, Canada: Library and Archives Canada."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_66_2","volume-title":"Geo. J. Alexander to Commissioner of Fisheries, 15 February 1945. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 117, file 1176","author":"Alexander GJ","year":"1945","unstructured":"Alexander GJ. 1945 Geo. J. Alexander to Commissioner of Fisheries, 15 February 1945. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 117, file 1176. Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_67_2","volume-title":"A. Macdonald to J. F. Tait, 7 February 1945. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 117, file 1176","author":"Macdonald A","year":"1945","unstructured":"Macdonald A. 1945 A. Macdonald to J. F. Tait, 7 February 1945. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 117, file 1176. Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10745-015-9743-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/2192-1709-2-12"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_70_2","unstructured":"Guttmann M. 2017 \u2018I\u2019d like to see it come back\u2019: the revitalization of Tsleil-Waututh Nation clam tending in Burrard Inlet (MA thesis). [Vancouver Canada]: University of British Columbia."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_71_2","volume-title":"Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the year ending December 31st 1912","author":"William TF","year":"1913","unstructured":"William TF. 1913 Report on the clam-beds of British Columbia. In Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the year ending December 31st 1912. Victoria, Canada: Legislative Assembly."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_72_2","volume-title":"J. O. Morris to J. P. Babcock, 21 April 1930. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 115, file 1155","author":"Morris JO","year":"1930","unstructured":"Morris JO. 1930 J. O. Morris to J. P. Babcock, 21 April 1930. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 115, file 1155. Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_73_2","volume-title":"J. J. Sutherland to E. S. Richardson, 3 January 1931. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 115, file 1155","author":"Sutherland JJ","year":"1931","unstructured":"Sutherland JJ. 1931 J. J. Sutherland to E. S. Richardson, 3 January 1931. Dept. of Marine and Fisheries records, GR-0435, vol. 115, file 1155. Victoria, Canada: BC Archives."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_74_2","volume-title":"J. A. Motherwell to G. J. Alexander, 6 November 1944. 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