{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:14:26Z","timestamp":1790813666300,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1943","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ANR"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Many debates in the language acquisition literature have revolved around the role of negative evidence for the acquisition of grammar. The scientific study of this question has not been settled with traditional research methods, given that it requires handling children\u2019s natural social interaction while controlling for the specific role of error-contingent feedback, independent of other types of input. Here, we leveraged computational modelling to test whether there are learning gains in grammar induced by caregivers\u2019 feedback above and beyond learning from input alone. More specifically, we compared language models trained on large corpora of child-directed language to the same models that were additionally fine-tuned through reinforcement learning using a reward model trained to provide caregiver-like feedback. Focusing on clarification requests, we found that fine-tuned models produced more grammatical utterances than baseline models. However, performance on challenging benchmarks of grammar knowledge evaluation did not improve. We showed that these benchmarks could, in principle, be improved through integration of other types of feedback. The broad impact of the current work is to introduce a methodological framework that enables scientists to test many types of feedback, including signals beyond the verbal modality, leading to a more comprehensive evaluation of caregiver feedback in language development.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Mechanisms of learning from social interaction\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0374","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T08:37:11Z","timestamp":1770280631000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Modelling children's grammar learning via caregiver feedback in natural conversations"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"381","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5609-6628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mitja","family":"Nikolaus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse 1 , ,","place":["31059 Toulouse, France"],"department":["Centre de Recherche Cerveau et Cognition"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdellah","family":"Fourtassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aix-Marseille Universite 2 , ,","place":["13397 Marseille, France"],"department":["Laboratoire d'Informatique et des Syst\u00e8mes"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026020503370876800_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614531023","article-title":"A social feedback loop for speech development and its reduction in autism","volume":"25","author":"Warlaumont","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721414522813","article-title":"Why is infant language learning facilitated by parental responsiveness?","volume":"23","author":"Tamis-LeMonda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2021.100961","article-title":"Where language meets attention: how contingent interactions promote learning","volume":"60","author":"Masek","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dev. Rev."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2019.104740","article-title":"Communicative cues in the absence of a human interaction partner enhance 12-month-old infants\u2019 word learning","volume":"191","author":"Tsuji","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2024.12.052","article-title":"Immature vocalizations elicit simplified adult speech across multiple languages","volume":"35","author":"Elmlinger","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.newideapsych.2022.100985","article-title":"Communicative feedback in language acquisition","volume":"68","author":"Nikolaus","year":"2023","journal-title":"New Ideas Psychol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511620690.004","volume-title":"Input and interaction in language acquisition","author":"Sokolov","year":"1994"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1080\/0163853X.2020.1719795","article-title":"Conversational repair and the acquisition of language","volume":"57","author":"Clark","year":"2020","journal-title":"Discourse Process."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R9","volume-title":"Learnability and cognition: the acquisition of argument structure","author":"Pinker","year":"1989"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(79)90001-5","article-title":"Formal models of language learning","volume":"7","author":"Pinker","year":"1979","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(93)90022-N","article-title":"Negative evidence in language acquisition","volume":"46","author":"Marcus","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900005596","article-title":"Brown & Hanlon revisited: mothers\u2019 sensitivity to ungrammatical forms","volume":"11","author":"Hirsh-Pasek","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1017\/S030500099600298X","article-title":"The contrast theory of negative input","volume":"24","author":"Saxton","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900008059","article-title":"Feedback to first language learners: the role of repetitions and clarification questions","volume":"13","author":"Demetras","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1177\/014272370002006001","article-title":"Negative evidence and negative feedback: immediate effects on the grammaticality of child speech","volume":"20","author":"Saxton","year":"2000","journal-title":"First Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.2307\/1166115","article-title":"Overregularization in language acquisition","volume":"57","author":"Marcus","year":"1992","journal-title":"Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.13328","article-title":"When children\u2019s production deviates from observed input: modeling the variable production of the English past tense","volume":"47","author":"Barak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000903005701","article-title":"Adult reformulations of child errors as negative evidence","volume":"30","author":"Chouinard","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiller\n              S\n            , FernandezR. 2016A data-driven investigation of corrective feedback on subject omission errors in first language acquisition. InProc. 20th SIGNLL Conf. Computational Natural Language Learning, (eds RiezlerS, GoldbergY). 11\u201312 August 2016, pp. 105\u2013114. Berlin, Germany: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/k16-1011)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/K16-1011"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R20","unstructured":"Nikolaus\n              M\n            , AgrawalA, KaklamanisP, WarstadtA, FourtassiA. 2024Automatic annotation of grammaticality in child-caregiver conversations. InProc. 2024 Joint Int. Conf. Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024), (eds CalzolariN, KanMY, HosteV, LenciA, SaktiS, XueN). Torino, Italy, 20\u201325 May, pp. 1832\u20131844. ELRA and ICCL. (doi:10.31234\/osf.io\/r49ew)"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03393086","article-title":"Three myths from the language acquisition literature","volume":"26","author":"Schoneberger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Verbal Behav."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1086\/423752","article-title":"Gold\u2019s theorem and cognitive science","volume":"71","author":"Johnson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Philosophy Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R23","first-page":"11","article-title":"Derivational complexity and order of acquisition in child speech","volume":"1","author":"Brown","year":"1970","journal-title":"Cogn. Dev. Lang"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.24.5.684","article-title":"The issue of negative evidence: adult responses to children\u2019s language errors","volume":"24","author":"Bohannon","year":"1988","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1901\/jeab.1990.54-293","article-title":"Three-term contingency patterns in mother-child verbal interactions during first-language acquisition","volume":"54","author":"Moerk","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Exp. Anal. Behav."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.28.1.90","article-title":"Negative evidence and grammatical morpheme acquisition","volume":"28","author":"Farrar","year":"1992","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1177\/014272370002006003","article-title":"Imitations and repetitions: what do children say following recasts?","volume":"20","author":"Strapp","year":"2000","journal-title":"First Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R28","unstructured":"Nikolaus\n              M\n            , Pr\u00e9votL, FourtassiA. 2023Communicative feedback in response to children\u2019s grammatical errors (eds GoldwaterM, AnggoroFK, HayesBK, OngDC). InProc. 45th Annu. Meeting Cognitive Science Society, Sydney, Australia, 26\u201329 July 2023, pp. 1885\u20131892. Oakland, CA: eScholarship Publishing. (doi:10.31234\/osf.io\/v83uj)"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900010709","article-title":"Limits on negative information in language input","volume":"16","author":"Morgan","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1017\/S0047404500009040","article-title":"Talking to children in Western Samoa","volume":"11","author":"Ochs","year":"1982","journal-title":"Lang. Soc."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004653023_018","volume-title":"Handbook of child language acquisition","author":"Valian","year":"1998"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360(2001\/015)","article-title":"Parental recasts and production of copulas and articles by children with specific language impairment and typical language","volume":"10","author":"Proctor-Williams","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000905006999","article-title":"Negative input for grammatical errors: effects after a lag of 12 weeks","volume":"32","author":"Saxton","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.31.2.180","article-title":"Negative evidence on negative evidence","volume":"31","author":"Morgan","year":"1995","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000998003559","article-title":"Longer-term effects of corrective input: an experimental approach","volume":"25","author":"Saxton","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/0142723707084840","article-title":"Developmental differences in the effects of negative and positive evidence","volume":"28","author":"Strapp","year":"2008","journal-title":"First Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1177\/0142723719850955","article-title":"On the inefficiency of negative feedback in Russian morphology L1 acquisition","volume":"39","author":"Kulinich","year":"2019","journal-title":"First Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huebner\n              PA\n            , SulemE, CynthiaF, RothD. 2021BabyBERTa: learning more grammar with small-scale child-directed language. InProc. 25th Conf. Computational Natural Language Learning (eds BisazzaB, AbendO). Online, 10\u201311 November 2021, pp. 624\u2013646. Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2021.conll-1.49)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.conll-1.49"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.13305","article-title":"Finding structure in one child\u2019s linguistic experience","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warstadt\n              A\n            \n            et al\n          . 2023Findings of the BabyLM Challenge: sample-efficient pretraining on developmentally plausible corpora (ed. WarstadtA). InProc. BabyLM Challenge at the 27th Conf. Computational Natural Language Learning, Singapore, December 2023, Singapore, 2 May 2023, pp. 1\u201334. Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2023.conll-babylm.1)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.conll-babylm.1"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R41","unstructured":"Qin\n              Y\n            , WangW, LakeB. 2024A systematic investigation of learnability from single child linguistic input. InProc. 46th Annu. Meeting Cognitive Science Society, (eds SamuelsonLK, FrankSL, TonevaM, MackeyA, HazeltineE). Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 24\u201327 July 2024, pp. 2503\u20132510. Oakland, CA: eScholarship Publishing."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R42","article-title":"Is child-directed speech effective training data for language models?","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R43","first-page":"123","article-title":"Can phones, syllables, and words emerge as side-products of cross-situational audiovisual learning? - A computational investigation","volume":"1","author":"Khorrami","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lang. Dev. Res"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00498","article-title":"Learning English with Peppa Pig","volume":"10","author":"Nikolaus","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13606","article-title":"Simulating early phonetic and word learning without linguistic categories","volume":"28","author":"Lavechin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adi1374","article-title":"Grounded language acquisition through the eyes and ears of a single child","volume":"383","author":"Vong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R47","first-page":"35","article-title":"Comparing children and large language models in word sense disambiguation: insights and challenges","volume":"5","author":"Cabiddu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lang. Dev. Res."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R48","volume-title":"Reinforcement learning, second edition: an introduction","author":"Sutton","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R49","article-title":"Proximal policy optimization algorithms","author":"Schulman","year":"2017","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolaus\n              M\n            , FourtassiA. 2021Modeling the interaction between perception-based and production-based learning in children\u2019s early acquisition of semantic knowledge. InProc. 25th Conf. Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL), November 2021, (eds BisazzaA, AbendO). Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, 10\u201311 November 2021, pp. 391\u2013407. Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2021.conll-1.31)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.conll-1.31"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\n              Z\n            , WangZ, ChaiJ. 2025Babysit a language model from scratch: interactive language learning by trials and demonstrations. InProc. 2025 Conf. Nations of the Americas Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Albuquerque, New Mexico, (eds ChiruzzoL, RitterA, WangL). 29 April 2025, vol. 1, pp. 991\u20131010, Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2025.naacl-long.46)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2025.naacl-long.46"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1162\/coli_a_00528","article-title":"Usage-based grammar induction from minimal cognitive principles","volume":"50","author":"Jon-And","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2018.06.016","article-title":"Social babbling: the emergence of symbolic gestures and words","volume":"106","author":"Cohen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R54","unstructured":"Zhu\n              H\n            , NeubigG. 2022Language learning from communicative goals and linguistic input. InProc. 44th Annu. Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, (eds BiskY, CulbertsonJ, PerforsA, RabagliatiH, RamenzoniV). Toronto, Canada, 27\u201330 July 2022, pp. 1351\u20131358. Oakland, CA: eScholarship Publishing."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360(2005\/006)","article-title":"Utility of the MacArthur\u2013Bates communicative development inventory in identifying language abilities of late-talking and typically developing toddlers","volume":"14","author":"Heilmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0078273","article-title":"Is \u2018huh?\u2019 a universal word? Conversational infrastructure and the convergent evolution of linguistic items","volume":"8","author":"Dingemanse","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0136100","article-title":"Universal principles in the repair of communication problems","volume":"10","author":"Dingemanse","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R58","volume-title":"The CHILDES project: tools for analyzing talk","author":"MacWhinney","edition":"3rd"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R59","first-page":"9","article-title":"Language models are unsupervised multitask learners","volume":"1","author":"Radford","year":"2019","journal-title":"OpenAI Blog"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R60","unstructured":"He\n              P\n            , GaoJ, ChenW. 2023DeBERTaV3: improving DeBERTa using ELECTRA-style pre-training with gradient-disentangled embedding sharing. InProc. Int. Conf. Learning Representations, Kigali, Rwanda, 1\u20135 May 2023. OpenReview."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R61","unstructured":"Loshchilov\n              I\n            , HutterF. 2019Decoupled weight decay regularization. InProc. Int. Conf. on learning representations, New Orleans, pp. 4061\u20134078. OpenReview."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.08.007","article-title":"Bridging the data gap between children and large language models","volume":"27","author":"Frank","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazaridou\n              A\n            , PotapenkoA, TielemanO. 2020Multi-agent communication meets natural language: synergies between functional and structural language learning. InProc. 58th Annu. Meeting Association for Computational Linguistics, (eds JurafskyD, ChaiJ, SchluterN, TetreaultJ). pp. 7663\u20137674. Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.685)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.685"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rothe\n              S\n            , MallinsonJ, MalmiE, KrauseS, SeverynA. 2021A simple recipe for multilingual grammatical error correction. InProc. 59th Annu. Meeting Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th Int. joint Conf. Natural Language Processing, (eds ZongC, XiaF, LiW, NavigliR). vol. 2, pp. 702\u2013707, Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2021.acl-short.89)","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.acl-short.89"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00321","article-title":"BLiMP: the Benchmark of Linguistic Minimal Pairs for English","volume":"8","author":"Warstadt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104779","article-title":"SCALa: a blueprint for computational models of language acquisition in social context","volume":"213","author":"Tsuji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R67","volume-title":"Vision: a computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information","author":"Marr","year":"1982"},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900011429","article-title":"Individual differences in early vocabulary development: redefining the referential-expressive distinction","volume":"19","author":"Lieven","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000900008473","article-title":"Reanalysing rote-learned phrases: individual differences in the transition to multi-word speech","volume":"20","author":"Fine","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R70","unstructured":"Nikolaus\n              M\n            \n          . 2025lm_feedback. Seehttps:\/\/github.com\/mitjanikolaus\/lm_feedback."},{"key":"2026020503370876800_R71","unstructured":"Wolf\n              T\n            \n            et al\n          . 2020Transformers: State-of-the-Art Natural Language Processing (eds SchlangenD, LiuQ). InProceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Online, 16\u201320 November 2020, pp. 38\u201345. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics. (doi:10.18653\/v1\/2020.emnlp-demos.6). https:\/\/www.aclweb.org\/anthology\/2020.emnlp-demos."}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions B"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2024.0374\/5685206\/rstb.2024.0374.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2024.0374\/5685206\/rstb.2024.0374.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T08:37:22Z","timestamp":1770280642000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/381\/1943\/20240374\/480099\/Modelling-children-s-grammar-learning-via"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1943","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2024.0374","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"article-number":"20240374"}}