{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T07:25:33Z","timestamp":1790925933855,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1941","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Genital schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that affects both men and women as male and female genital schistosomiasis (MGS and FGS), respectively. Symptoms mimic sexually transmitted infections in men and women, owing to inflammation in the genital organs caused by migrating and trapped parasite ova. Schistosoma haematobium is the main causative organism, with an estimated 75% of infected women experiencing FGS, equating to approximately 56 million women mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Estimates for MGS are mostly lacking, but numbers may be equivalent. S. haematobium has been found in hybridized forms with other Schistosoma animal species such as S. bovis, S. curassoni, S. mattheei and human schistosomes like S. mansoni. It is currently unclear what the impact of these species might be on genital schistosomiasis, including on clinical presentation, prognosis and management. In this review, we explore genital schistosomiasis and hypothesize the potential morbidity impact of hybrid species, along with highlighting future research needs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the Science+ meeting issue \u2018Parasite evolution and impact in action: exploring the importance and control of hybrid schistosomes\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2025.0086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T09:41:06Z","timestamp":1767865266000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Finding hybrid schistosomes in genital schistosomiasis: are we missing their clinical relevance?"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"381","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0398-1567","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hannah","family":"Rafferty","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Barts Health NHS Trust 1 , ,","place":["London, UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amaya","family":"Bustinduy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine 2 , ,","place":["London, UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026020906222170800_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2011.10.008","article-title":"A review of female genital schistosomiasis","volume":"28","author":"Kjetland","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2009.12.050","article-title":"The first community-based report on the effect of genital Schistosoma haematobium infection on female fertility","volume":"94","author":"Kjetland","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2016.07.192","article-title":"Successive ectopic pregnancies associated with tubal shistosomiasis in a French woman","volume":"206","author":"Laroche","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008383","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the association between urogenital schistosomiasis and HIV\/AIDS infection","volume":"14","author":"Zirimenya","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.10.088","article-title":"Association of schistosomiasis and HIV infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"102","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06380-5","article-title":"Association between cervical dysplasia and female genital schistosomiasis diagnosed by genital PCR in Zambian women","volume":"21","author":"Rafferty","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-024-03514-0","article-title":"Association of female genital schistosomiasis and human papillomavirus and cervical pre-cancer: a systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Sturt","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Womens Health"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2018.e00077","article-title":"A systematic review with epidemiological update of male genital schistosomiasis (MGS): a call for integrated case management across the health system in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"4","author":"Kayuni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1998.59.782","article-title":"Schistosomiasis of the lower reproductive tract without egg excretion in urine","volume":"59","author":"Poggensee","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R10","unstructured":"World Health Organisation\n          . 2015Female genital schistosomiasis. A pocket atlas for clinical health-care professionals. (eds Garba DjirmayA, MbabaziP), WHO\/HTM\/NTD\/2015.4."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R11","first-page":"1","article-title":"An update on female and male genital schistosomiasis and a call to integrate efforts to escalate diagnosis, treatment and awareness in endemic and non-endemic settings: the time is now","volume":"115","author":"Bustinduy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R12","first-page":"14","article-title":"Visual diagnosis of female genital schistosomiasis in Zambian women from hand-held colposcopy: agreement of expert image review and association with clinical symptoms","volume":"8","author":"Sturt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.09-0081","article-title":"Schistosomiasis PCR in vaginal lavage as an indicator of genital Schistosoma haematobium infection in rural Zimbabwean women","volume":"81","author":"Kjetland","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008337","article-title":"Genital self-sampling compared with cervicovaginal lavage for the diagnosis of female genital schistosomiasis in Zambian women: the BILHIV Study","volume":"14","author":"Sturt","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011465","article-title":"Assessing the prevalence of female genital schistosomiasis and comparing the acceptability and performance of health worker-collected and self-collected cervical-vaginal swabs using PCR testing among women in north-western Tanzania: the ShWAB study","volume":"17","author":"Ursini","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/ldad034","article-title":"Time to bring female genital schistosomiasis out of neglect","volume":"149","author":"Lamberti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010276","article-title":"Validation of the isothermal Schistosoma haematobium recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay, coupled with simplified sample preparation, for diagnosing female genital schistosomiasis using cervicovaginal lavage and vaginal self-swab samples","volume":"16","author":"Archer","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1055-3","article-title":"Isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) of Schistosoma haematobium DNA and oligochromatographic lateral flow detection","volume":"8","author":"Rosser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e17338","article-title":"Detection of male genital schistosomiasis (MGS) by real-time TaqMan\u00ae PCR analysis of semen from fishermen along the southern shoreline of Lake Malawi","volume":"9","author":"Kayuni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R20","unstructured":"Buonfrate\n              D\n            , FerrariTCA, Akim AdegnikaA, Russell StothardJ, GobbiFG. Human schistosomiasis. Seehttps:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0140673624028149."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e328318978f","article-title":"Praziquantel: mechanisms of action, resistance and new derivatives for schistosomiasis","volume":"21","author":"Doenhoff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R22","unstructured":"World Health Organisation\n          . 2022WHO guideline on control and elimination of human schistosomiasis. Seehttps:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240041608."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1091","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(25)00095-6","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of praziquantel 40 mg\/kg versus 80 mg\/kg in preschool-aged children with intestinal schistosomiasis in Uganda: a 2 \u00d7 2 factorial, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 randomised trial","volume":"13","author":"Bustinduy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12154","article-title":"Detectable urogenital schistosome DNA and cervical abnormalities 6 months after single-dose praziquantel in women with Schistosoma haematobium infection","volume":"18","author":"Downs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7292(82)90072-8","article-title":"Pelvic schistosomiasis and infertility","volume":"20","author":"El-Mahgoub","year":"1982","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(96)00030-7","article-title":"Reversibility of lower reproductive tract abnormalities in women with Schistosoma haematobium infection after treatment with praziquantel\u2014an interim report","volume":"62","author":"Richter","year":"1996","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2005.09.010","article-title":"Genital schistosomiasis in women: a clinical 12-month in vivo study following treatment with praziquantel","volume":"100","author":"Kjetland","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1086\/591127","article-title":"Coexistence of urogenital schistosomiasis and sexually transmitted infection in women and men living in an area where Schistosoma haematobium is endemic","volume":"47","author":"Leutscher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R29","unstructured":"Samuels\n              L\n            \n          . 2019Clinical follow-up of women with female genital schistosomiasis one year following treatment with praziquantel. Thesis, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2024.1322652","article-title":"Repeated versus single praziquantel dosing regimen in treatment of female genital schistosomiasis: a phase 2 randomised controlled trial showing no difference in efficacy","volume":"5","author":"Arenholt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Closing the diagnostic gap in male genital schistosomiasis (MGS): current detection tools and novel strategies","author":"Neufeld","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasitology (online)"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R32","article-title":"Awareness and knowledge regarding female genital schistosomiasis among European healthcare workers: a cross-sectional online survey","volume":"21","author":"Marchese","year":"2025","journal-title":"Global. Health"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-023-02050-7","article-title":"Schistosomiasis in non-endemic areas: Italian consensus recommendations for screening, diagnosis and management by the Italian Society of Tropical Medicine and Global Health (SIMET)","volume":"51","author":"Comelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf180","article-title":"Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) in a non-endemic setting: retrospective case-notes review of Schistosoma haematobium positive FGS cases at the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London, with pragmatic clinical pathway for non-endemic settings","volume":"12","author":"Rafferty","year":"2025","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2007.02.002","article-title":"Increased transmission potential of Leishmania major\/Leishmania infantum hybrids","volume":"37","author":"Volf","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.61562","article-title":"Molecular evidence of hybridization between pig and human Ascaris indicates an interbred species complex infecting humans","volume":"9","author":"Easton","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002110","article-title":"Introgressive hybridization of Schistosoma haematobium group species in Senegal: species barrier break down between ruminant and human schistosomes","volume":"7","author":"Webster","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2506.190020","article-title":"Schistosome Interactions within the Schistosoma haematobium group, Malawi","volume":"25","author":"Webster","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018000525","article-title":"Barcoding hybrids: heterogeneous distribution of Schistosoma haematobium \u00d7 Schistosoma bovis hybrids across the Senegal River Basin","volume":"145","author":"Boon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3105.241757","article-title":"Unexpected zoonotic and hybrid schistosome egg excretion patterns, Malawi, 2024","volume":"31","author":"O\u2019Ferrall","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2024.12.008","article-title":"Schistosoma mattheei and zoonotic schistosomiasis","volume":"41","author":"Stothard","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2502.172028","article-title":"Schistosoma haematobium\u2013Schistosoma mansoni hybrid parasite in migrant boy, France, 2017","volume":"25","author":"Le Govic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-024-09732-z","article-title":"Detection of male genital schistosomiasis (MGS) associated with human, zoonotic and hybrid schistosomes in Southern Malawi","volume":"24","author":"Kayuni","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008201","article-title":"Future schistosome hybridizations: will all schistosoma haematobium hybrids please stand-up!","volume":"14","author":"Stothard","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(98)00021-6","article-title":"Recent studies on the reproductive biology of the schistosomes and their relevance to speciation in the Digenea","volume":"28","author":"Southgate","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12778","article-title":"Granuloma formation and tissue pathology in Schistosoma japonicum versus Schistosoma mansoni infections","volume":"43","author":"Llanwarne","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9081776","article-title":"Hybridized zoonotic schistosoma infections result in hybridized morbidity profiles: a clinical morbidity study amongst co-infected human populations of Senegal","volume":"9","author":"Fall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2024.102744","article-title":"Impact of species hybridization on the clinical management of schistosomiasis: a prospective study","volume":"61","author":"Salas-Coronas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026020906222170800_R49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2022.933097","article-title":"A review of the genetic determinants of praziquantel resistance in Schistosoma mansoni: is praziquantel and intestinal schistosomiasis a perfect match?","volume":"3","author":"Summers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Trop. Dis."}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions B"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2025.0086\/5627924\/rstb.2025.0086.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2025.0086\/5627924\/rstb.2025.0086.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T11:22:34Z","timestamp":1770636154000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/381\/1941\/20250086\/478992\/Finding-hybrid-schistosomes-in-genital"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1941","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2025.0086","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"article-number":"20250086"}}