{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T07:59:13Z","timestamp":1790236753077,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1959","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Dutch Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["VI.Veni.201G.017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VI.Veni.201G.017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Self-conscious emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, shame and pride, play a central role in managing reputation and interpersonal relationships. They are thought to emerge in the first years of life, with children's developing cognitive capacities and their growing appreciation of social norms and rules. Recent years have seen a rapid increase in research on self-conscious emotions in early life, supported by advanced methods including manual and automated micro-coding of non-verbal behaviour, depth sensor imaging and physiological measures. In this narrative review, we summarize this emerging evidence from developmental science, which suggests that self-conscious emotions may be observed earlier than previously thought\u2014within the first months and years of life\u2014and that they seem to serve both motivational and communicative functions from early on. Specifically, they motivate socially appropriate behaviours, such as helping others, while communicating adherence to social norms and rules. Further, we highlight current limitations in the field and recommend more experimental and longitudinal studies especially in infancy and toddlerhood, the integration of multi-modal data and the use of naturalistic tasks to advance our understanding of self-conscious emotions in early development.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Mechanisms, development, phylogeny and functions of emotional expressions\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2025.0134","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T07:08:01Z","timestamp":1790233681000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The expression of self-conscious emotions and their motivational and communicative function in early development"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"381","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7898-6012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milica","family":"Nikoli\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam 1 , Nieuwe Achtergracht 127, 1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4780-6549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Hepach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford 2 , Oxford, OX1 3EL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-021-01130-8","article-title":"The rise of affectivism","volume":"5","author":"Dukes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1801","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000789","article-title":"Progress in understanding the emergence of human emotion","volume":"55","author":"Pollak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-17332-6_2","volume-title":"Handbook of emotional development","author":"Buss","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C4","first-page":"123","volume-title":"Social life and social knowledge: toward a process account of development","author":"Reddy","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-046616-3.00022-0","article-title":"Understanding others: embodied social cognition","volume-title":"Handbook of cognitive science","author":"Gallagher","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-5914.2008.00363.x","article-title":"What's social about social emotions?","volume":"38","author":"Hareli","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Theory Soc. Behav."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C7","first-page":"129","article-title":"Digging deeper: the fundamental nature of \u201cself-conscious\u201d emotions","volume":"15","author":"Leary","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Inq."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327965pli1502_01","article-title":"Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: a theoretical model","volume":"15","author":"Tracy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Inq."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48251.x","article-title":"The self in self-conscious emotions","volume":"818","author":"Lewis","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.122.3.250","article-title":"Embarrassment: its distinct form and appeasement functions","volume":"122","author":"Keltner","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.115.2.243","article-title":"Guilt: an interpersonal approach","volume":"115","author":"Baumeister","year":"1994","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.08.008","article-title":"The prosocial functions of early social emotions: the case of guilt","volume":"20","author":"Vaish","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-013-9817-z","article-title":"Bound to feel bad about oneself: relations between attachment and the self-conscious emotions of guilt and shame in children and adolescents","volume":"23","author":"Muris","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Child Fam. Stud."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2015.04.028","article-title":"Validation of the brief shame and guilt questionnaire for children","volume":"85","author":"Novin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Person. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073920939630","article-title":"The study of prosocial emotions in early childhood: unique opportunities and insights","volume":"12","author":"Hepach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C16","first-page":"1","volume-title":"The psychological significance of the blush","author":"Crozier","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-9004.2009.00217.x","article-title":"The self-conscious emotions: how are they experienced, expressed, and assessed?","volume":"3","author":"Robins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1037\/a0015766","article-title":"Development of a FACS-verified set of basic and self-conscious emotion expressions","volume":"9","author":"Tracy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C19","first-page":"39","volume-title":"The psychological significance of the blush","author":"Cooper","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536440","DOI":"10.3389\/fdpys.2025.1536440","article-title":"Body posture as a measure of emotional valence in young children: a preregistered validation study","volume":"3","author":"Gerdemann","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/026999396380312","article-title":"Evidence for the distinctness of embarrassment, shame, and guilt: a study of recalled antecedents and facial expressions of emotion","volume":"10","author":"Keltner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1224313","article-title":"Body cues, not facial expressions, discriminate between intense positive and negative emotions","volume":"338","author":"Aviezer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-38877-5_3","volume-title":"Adaptive shyness: multiple perspectives on behavior and development","author":"Colonnesi","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11767","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-38502-1","article-title":"Parental socialization of guilt and shame in early childhood","volume":"13","author":"Nikoli\u0107","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C25","first-page":"4901","article-title":"Exploring the expression of emotions in children's body posture using OpenPose","volume-title":"Proc. Ann. Meet. Cogn. Sci. Soc.","author":"F\u00f6rsterling","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13169","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92652-8","article-title":"Cultural values shape the expression of self-evaluative social emotions","volume":"11","author":"von Suchodoletz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.2307\/1131080","article-title":"Self development and self-conscious emotions","volume":"60","author":"Lewis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-0525-3_4","volume-title":"Shyness: perspectives on research and treatment","author":"Buss","year":"1986"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-7078.2012.00117.x","article-title":"What coy smiles say about positive shyness in early infancy","volume":"18","author":"Colonnesi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-7687.00112","article-title":"Coyness in early infancy","volume":"3","author":"Reddy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.420100102","article-title":"Self-conscious behavior of infants: a videotape study","volume":"10","author":"Amsterdam","year":"1977","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C32","first-page":"8gfve_v1","article-title":"The early ontogeny of self-conscious emotions during infancy","author":"Riddell","year":"2025","journal-title":"PsyArXiv"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C33","first-page":"134","volume-title":"The self-conscious emotions: theory and research","author":"Lewis","year":"2007"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.112.3.446","article-title":"Social blushing","volume":"112","author":"Leary","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0000131","article-title":"Blushing in early childhood: feeling coy or socially anxious?","volume":"16","author":"Nikoli\u0107","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13221","article-title":"The unique contribution of blushing to the development of social anxiety disorder symptoms: results from a longitudinal study","volume":"61","author":"Nikoli\u0107","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70024","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.70024","article-title":"Putting the social in emotions: the effect of audience presence on pride and embarrassment across ontogeny","volume":"28","author":"Riddell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20240958","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2024.0958","article-title":"The blushing brain: neural substrates of cheek temperature increase in response to self-observation","volume":"291","author":"Nikoli\u0107","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1111\/infa.12390","article-title":"Under the skin: exploring 2-month-olds' thermal reactions in different social interactions with mother and stranger","volume":"26","author":"Ioannou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1080\/02699939308409201","article-title":"Avoiders vs. amenders: implications for the investigation of guilt and shame during toddlerhood?","volume":"7","author":"Barrett","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764295038008008","article-title":"Recent advances in the empirical study of shame and guilt","volume":"38","author":"Tangney","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10607","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-60980-0","article-title":"The nonverbal expression of guilt in healthy adults","volume":"14","author":"Stewart","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0231756","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0231756","article-title":"Are there non-verbal signals of guilt?","volume":"15","author":"Julle-Dani\u00e8re","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.2307\/1131940","article-title":"Toddlers' sensitivity to standard violations","volume":"66","author":"Kochanska","year":"1995","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12653","article-title":"Helping the one you hurt: toddlers\u2019 rudimentary guilt, shame, and prosocial behavior after harming another","volume":"88","author":"Drummond","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2022.2054779","article-title":"Amenders and Avoiders: an examination of guilt and shame for toddlers and their older siblings","volume":"36","author":"Kolak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1772","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12628","article-title":"The early emergence of guilt-motivated prosocial behavior","volume":"87","author":"Vaish","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11 655\u201311 660","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0802686105","article-title":"The spontaneous expression of pride and shame: evidence for biologically innate nonverbal displays","volume":"105","author":"Tracy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1348\/026151000165562","article-title":"Shame and guilt in children: differential situational antecedents and experiential correlates","volume":"18","author":"Olthof","year":"2000","journal-title":"British J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.83.1.138","article-title":"The role of public exposure in moral and nonmoral shame and guilt","volume":"83","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00418","article-title":"Guilt in young children: development, determinants, and relations with a broader system of standards","volume":"73","author":"Kochanska","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2307\/1166190","article-title":"Self-evaluation in young children","volume":"57","author":"Stipek","year":"1992","journal-title":"Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1080\/17405629.2013.765796","article-title":"Shame and guilt development in preschoolers: the role of context, audience and individual characteristics","volume":"10","author":"Bafunno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.2307\/1131351","article-title":"Differences in shame and pride as a function of children's gender and task difficulty","volume":"63","author":"Lewis","year":"1992","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.2307\/1131671","article-title":"Temperament and parenting antecedents of individual differences in three-year-old boys' pride and shame reactions","volume":"68","author":"Belsky","year":"1997","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00858","article-title":"Novel paradigms to measure variability of behavior in early childhood: posture, gaze, and pupil dilation","volume":"6","author":"Hepach","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1111\/sode.12578","article-title":"How being observed influences preschoolers\u2019 emotions following (less) deserving help","volume":"31","author":"Gerdemann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2022.105377","article-title":"Preschool children's evaluations of their own unjustified requests","volume":"218","author":"Waddington","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191456","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.191456","article-title":"The ontogeny of children's social emotions in response to (un)fairness","volume":"9","author":"Gerdemann","year":"2022","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e214","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12774","article-title":"Dysregulated fear, social inhibition, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia: a replication and extension","volume":"89","author":"Buss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.92.3.506","article-title":"The psychological structure of pride: a tale of two facets","volume":"92","author":"Tracy","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.94.3.516","article-title":"The nonverbal expression of pride: evidence for cross-cultural recognition","volume":"94","author":"Tracy","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2016.11.001","article-title":"You and me: investigating the role of self-evaluative emotion in preschool prosociality","volume":"155","author":"Ross","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C64","first-page":"2","article-title":"The development of achievement motivation in preschool-age children. Social evaluations and their effect on pride, shame, and perseverance reactions","volume":"38","author":"Holodynski","year":"2006","journal-title":"Z. f\u00fcr Entwicklungspsychologie P\u00e4dagog. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.evolhumbehav.2024.02.001","article-title":"Choosing to help others at a cost to oneself elevates preschoolers' body posture","volume":"45","author":"Sivertsen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Evol. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13253","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13253","article-title":"Evidence for a developmental shift in the motivation underlying helping in early childhood","volume":"26","author":"Hepach","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1177\/016502548801100302","article-title":"Becoming aware of one's competence in the second year: developmental progression within the mother child dyad","volume":"11","author":"Heckhausen","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13069","article-title":"The emergence of forgiveness in young children","volume":"90","author":"Oostenbroek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C69","first-page":"91","volume-title":"The self-conscious emotions: theory and research","author":"Lagattuta","year":"2007"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C70","first-page":"100","volume-title":"The psychological significance of blush","author":"Stegge","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C71","volume-title":"Shyness and embarrassment: perspective from social psychology","author":"Castelfranchi","year":"1990"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021352926675","article-title":"Communicative and remedial effects of social blushing","volume":"23","author":"De Jong","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Nonverbal Behav."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025403","article-title":"Flustered and faithful: embarrassment as a signal of prosociality","volume":"102","author":"Feinberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022774","article-title":"Saved by the blush: being trusted despite defecting","volume":"11","author":"Dijk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2019.1634004","article-title":"Facial blushing influences perceived embarrassment and related social functional evaluations","volume":"34","author":"Thorstenson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1111\/spc3.12009","article-title":"Social effects of facial blushing: influence of context and actor versus observer perspective","volume":"7","author":"De Jong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0232298","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232298","article-title":"How bodily expressions of emotion after norm violation influence perceivers\u2019 moral judgments and prevent social exclusion: a socio-functional approach to nonverbal shame display","volume":"15","author":"Halmesvaara","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073919885014","article-title":"The development of prosocial emotions","volume":"12","author":"Vaish","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000788","article-title":"Reparative prosocial behaviors alleviate children's guilt","volume":"55","author":"Donohue","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12646","article-title":"Children's intrinsic motivation to provide help themselves after accidentally harming others","volume":"88","author":"Hepach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0001557","article-title":"The ontogeny of children's group-based guilt and motivated reparative prosocial behaviors","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2016.08.004","article-title":"Do young children accept responsibility for the negative actions of ingroup members?","volume":"40","author":"Over","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cogn. Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e45","DOI":"10.1017\/ehs.2022.43","article-title":"The evolution of shame and its display","volume":"4","author":"Landers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evol. Hum. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.83.2.434","article-title":"Patterns of emotion-specific appraisal, coping, and cardiovascular reactivity during an ongoing emotional episode","volume":"83","author":"Herrald","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028412","article-title":"Cross-cultural evidence that the nonverbal expression of pride is an automatic status signal","volume":"142","author":"Tracy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.94.6.1007","article-title":"Pride and perseverance: the motivational role of pride","volume":"94","author":"Williams","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12632","article-title":"The promotive influence of positive moral emotions on prosocial behavior in 3\u20135-year-old children","volume":"27","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12086","article-title":"Young children care more about their reputation with ingroup members and potential reciprocators","volume":"16","author":"Engelmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.08.024","article-title":"The influence of reputational concerns on children's prosociality","volume":"20","author":"Engelmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2008.10.032","article-title":"Implicit and explicit processes in social cognition","volume":"60","author":"Frith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1006\/drev.2000.0524","article-title":"Rethinking the development of \u201cnonbasic\u201d emotions: a critical review of existing theories","volume":"21","author":"Draghi-Lorenz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Rev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073911430141","article-title":"Emotion as personal relatedness","volume":"4","author":"Hobson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(03)00191-8","article-title":"On being the object of attention: implications for self\u2013other consciousness","volume":"7","author":"Reddy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12017","article-title":"The mentalistic basis of core social cognition: experiments in preverbal infants and a computational model","volume":"16","author":"Kiley Hamlin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1037\/a0014322","article-title":"Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers","volume":"45","author":"Vaish","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2306344120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2306344120","article-title":"Human infants are aroused and concerned by moral transgressions","volume":"120","author":"Kassecker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000686","article-title":"Emotion words, emotion concepts, and emotional development in children: a constructionist hypothesis","volume":"55","author":"Hoemann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.07.006","article-title":"The role of language in emotion: existing evidence and future directions","volume":"17","author":"Lindquist","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s42761-023-00212-2","article-title":"Beyond nature versus nurture: the emergence of emotion","volume":"4","author":"Wood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Affective Sci."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1111\/bjdp.12094","article-title":"Children's understanding of embarrassment: integrating mental time travel and mental state information","volume":"33","author":"Chobhthaigh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.2307\/1130316","article-title":"A developmental analysis of elementary school-aged children's concepts of pride and embarrassment","volume":"59","author":"Seidner","year":"1988","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930902847151","article-title":"Development in children's attribution of embarrassment and the relationship with theory of mind and shyness","volume":"24","author":"Colonnesi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3281","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1701676114","article-title":"Can self-awareness be taught? Monkeys pass the mirror test\u2014again","volume":"114","author":"Huttunen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2412450122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2412450122","article-title":"Bonobos point more for ignorant than knowledgeable social partners","volume":"122","author":"Townrow","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C105","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u2018Any animal whatever'. Darwinian building blocks of morality in monkeys and apes","volume":"7","author":"Flack","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Conscious. Stud."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.07.031","article-title":"A comparative glance on self-conscious emotions: a commentary on Kret et al. (2020)","volume":"129","author":"Nikoli\u0107","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C107","first-page":"161","article-title":"Self-conscious emotions as dynamic cultural processes","volume":"15","author":"Mesquita","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Inq."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1177\/17540739221150236","article-title":"Skin complexion and the blush","volume":"15","author":"Crozier","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1037\/a0030737","article-title":"Gender differences in emotion expression in children: a meta-analytic review","volume":"139","author":"Chaplin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027930","article-title":"Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: a meta-analysis","volume":"138","author":"Else-Quest","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"2026092403075898400_RSTB20250134C111","first-page":"321","volume-title":"Pathological altruism","author":"Zahn-Waxler","year":"2011"}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2025.0134\/6167194\/rstb.2025.0134.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2025.0134\/6167194\/rstb.2025.0134.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T07:08:14Z","timestamp":1790233694000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/381\/1959\/20250134\/483378\/The-expression-of-self-conscious-emotions-and"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1959","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2025.0134","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"article-number":"20250134"}}