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The framework clarifies several key but sometimes overlooked conceptual distinctions in emotion science, including the distinctions between emotions and their expressions, the individual and social functions of emotions, and functions and benefits. This framework also integrates ultimate and proximate levels of analysis by showing how functional hypotheses lead to concrete, testable proximate predictions about how emotions work. By organizing these distinctions and levels of analysis, this framework provides a basis for asking precise questions and testing new hypotheses about the structure and function of emotions and their expressions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Mechanisms, development, phylogeny and functions of emotional expressions\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2025.0150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T07:09:57Z","timestamp":1790233797000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A multi-level framework for the functions of emotions and their expressions"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"381","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8600-0591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laith","family":"Al-Shawaf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Colorado 1 , Colorado Springs, CO 80918, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Colorado 2 , Colorado Springs, CO 80918, USA"},{"name":"Lyda Hill Institute for Human Resilience, University of Colorado 3 , Colorado Springs, CO 80918, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David M. 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