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These events are thought to originate from powerful coronal mass ejections (CMEs), typically associated with large solar flares triggered by magnetic field reconnection in complex active regions (ARs). Stellar observations indicate that Sun-like stars can host \u2018superflares\u2019 exceeding 1034\u00a0erg roughly once per century, yet it remains uncertain whether the Sun can reach such flare energies. We empirically estimate the upper limit of solar flare energies using statistical relations between flare-ribbon areas and released energy derived from modern observations. By extrapolating these upper-envelope relations to the largest sunspot group recorded since 1859\u2014the Great Sunspot of 8 April 1947\u2014we find that exceptionally large and complex solar ARs could, in principle, produce flares with bolometric energies of a few \u00d71034\u00a0erg.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue \u2018Radiocarbon and cosmic radiation events\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2025.0290","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T08:58:41Z","timestamp":1789030721000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Empirical flare energy limits for the largest historical sunspots"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"384","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1377-3067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalie","family":"Krivova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Sun and Heliosphere Department 1 , G\u00f6ttingen, Niedersachsen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Theodosios","family":"Chatzistergos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Sun and Heliosphere Department 1 , G\u00f6ttingen, Niedersachsen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Kazachenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado Boulder, Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics 2 , Boulder, CO, USA"},{"name":"National Solar Observatory 3 , Boulder, CO, USA"},{"name":"University of Colorado Boulder, Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences 4 , Boulder, CO, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emre","family":"I\u015f\u0131k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Sun and Heliosphere Department 1 , G\u00f6ttingen, Niedersachsen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026091004583486700_RSTA20250290C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s41116-022-00033-8","article-title":"Extreme solar events","volume":"19","author":"Cliver","year":"2022","journal-title":"Living Rev. 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