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Factors related to drug use, such as unsterile injection practices, contaminated drug paraphernalia and drug adulterants, increase the exposure to microbial pathogens. Illicit drugs also affect several components of the complex immune system and thus modulate host immunity. In addition, lifestyle practices such as multiple sexual partners, overcrowded housing arrangements and malnutrition serve as co-factors in increasing the risk of infection. In this review we present an overview of the unique aspects of microbial pathogenesis, immune modulation and common infections associated with drug use. We have restricted the definition of drug abuse to the use of illegal drugs (such as opiates, marijuana, cocaine, heroin and amphetamines), not including alcohol and nicotine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.027540-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,10]],"date-time":"2011-03-10T04:56:17Z","timestamp":1299732977000},"page":"408-422","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":72,"title":["Shooting up: the interface of microbial infections and drug abuse"],"prefix":"10.1099","volume":"60","author":[{"given":"Karishma S.","family":"Kaushik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ketoki","family":"Kapila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HQ \u2013 MG and G Area, Mumbai 400 005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. 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