{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"bioRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T01:22:05Z","timestamp":1784251325528,"version":"3.55.0"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]},"group-title":"Bioinformatics","reference-count":47,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>\n                  RNA viruses like SARS-CoV-2 have a high mutation rate, which contributes to their rapid evolution. The rate of mutations depends on the mutation type (e.g.,\n                  <jats:monospace>A<\/jats:monospace>\n                  \u2192\n                  <jats:monospace>C<\/jats:monospace>\n                  ,\n                  <jats:monospace>A<\/jats:monospace>\n                  \u2192\n                  <jats:monospace>G<\/jats:monospace>\n                  , etc.) and can vary between sites in the viral genome. Understanding this variation can shed light on the mutational processes at play, and is crucial for quantitative modeling of viral evolution. Using the millions of available SARS-CoV-2 full-genome sequences, we estimate rates of synonymous mutations for all 12 possible nucleotide mutation types and examine how much these rates vary between sites. We find a surprisingly high level of variability and several striking patterns: the rates of four mutation types suddenly increase at one of two gene boundaries; the rates of most mutation types strongly depend on a site\u2019s local sequence context, with up to 56-fold differences between contexts; consistent with a previous study, the rates of some mutation types are lower at sites engaged in RNA secondary structure. A simple log-linear model of these features explains \u223c15-60% of the fold-variation of mutation rates between sites, depending on mutation type; more complex models only modestly improve predictive power out of sample. We estimate the fitness effect of each mutation based on the number of times it actually occurs versus the number of times it is expected to occur based on the model. We identify several small regions of the genome where synonymous or noncoding mutations occur much less often than expected, indicative of strong purifying selection on the RNA sequence that is independent of protein sequence. Overall, this work expands our basic understanding of SARS-CoV-2\u2019s evolution by characterizing the virus\u2019s mutation process at the level of individual sites and uncovering several striking mutational patterns that arise from unknown mechanisms.\n                <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.01.07.631013","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T18:05:17Z","timestamp":1736359517000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The mutation rate of SARS-CoV-2 is highly variable between sites and is influenced by sequence context, genomic region, and RNA structure"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8324-8324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugh K.","family":"Haddox","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2427-3981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georg","family":"Angehrn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6051-0972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Sesta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6492-3854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chris","family":"Jennings-Shaffer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7651-6527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seth D.","family":"Temple","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5838-7840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jared G.","family":"Galloway","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6802-9139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William S.","family":"DeWitt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1267-3408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jesse D.","family":"Bloom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0607-6025","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"IV","given":"Frederick A.","family":"Matsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2525-1407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard A.","family":"Neher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"54368","reference":[{"key":"2025011301553738000_2025.01.07.631013v1.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04245-0"},{"key":"2025011301553738000_2025.01.07.631013v1.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang Liu , Jianying Liu , Bryan A Johnson , Hongjie Xia , Zhiqiang Ku , Craig Schindewolf , Steven G Widen , Zhiqiang An , Scott C Weaver , Vineet D Menachery , et al. 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