{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T22:01:23Z","timestamp":1790719283180,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"American Physical Society (APS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R35 GM143042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R35 GM143042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010319","name":"Shurl and Kay Curci Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010319","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.aps.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Phys. Rev. Research"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,25]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Bacterial populations typically exhibit exponential growth under resource-rich conditions, yet individual cells often deviate from this pattern. Recent work has shown that the elongation rates of  and  increase throughout the cell cycle (super-exponential growth), while  displays a midcycle minimum (convex growth), and  grows linearly. Here, we develop a single-cell model linking gene expression, proteome allocation, and mass growth to explain these diverse growth trajectories. By calibrating model parameters with experimental data, we show that DNA-proportional mRNA transcription produces near-exponential growth, whereas deviations from this proportionality yield the observed non-exponential growth patterns. Analysis of gene expression perturbations reveals that ribosome expression primarily controls dry mass growth rate, whereas cell envelope protein expression more strongly affects cell elongation rate. We show that cell-cycle-dependent transcription dynamics give rise to convex, super-exponential, and linear modes of cell elongation observed experimentally, demonstrating how the timing of cell envelope and ribosomal protein expressions drive cell-cycle-specific behaviors. These findings provide a mechanistic basis for non-exponential single-cell growth and offer insights into how bacterial cells dynamically regulate elongation rates within each generation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1103\/24rx-sxcw","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,25]],"date-time":"2025-06-25T18:34:29Z","timestamp":1750876469000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1103\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Gene expression cycles drive non-exponential bacterial growth"],"prefix":"10.1103","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4462-2170","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Arianna","family":"Cylke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05x2bcf33","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Carnegie Mellon University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8000-2556","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shiladitya","family":"Banerjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01zkghx44","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Georgia Institute of Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc1R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.mi.03.100149.002103","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc2R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2010.04.045","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc3R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/msb.2010.95","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc4R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.12.009","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc5R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep09155","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc6R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.36","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc7R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1615526115","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc8R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02205-19","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc9R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.112.208102","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc10R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.11.022","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc11R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.12.001","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc12R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2017.116","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc13R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6633\/aaa628","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc14R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2019.04.062","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc15R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.03.022","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc16R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0717-x","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc17R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.16234","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc18R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.05.045","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc19R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.47033","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc20R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2021416118","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc21R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41567-020-01079-x","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc22R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23439-8","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc23R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2016391118","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc24R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-021-00900-4","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc25R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-04865-4","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc26R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.72565","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc27R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2023.02.015","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"24rx-sxcwCc28R1","type":"journal-article","volume":"7","author":"T.\u00a0W. 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All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright_statement","label":"Copyright statement","group":{"name":"copyright","label":"copyright"}},{"value":"2025","name":"copyright_year","label":"Copyright year","group":{"name":"copyright","label":"copyright"}},{"value":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/","name":"creative_commons_license","label":"Creative Commons license","group":{"name":"licenses","label":"Licenses"}},{"value":"\u00a92025 The authors","name":"copyright_holder","label":"Copyright holder","group":{"name":"copyright","label":"copyright"}}],"article-number":"033123"}}