{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T23:29:53Z","timestamp":1768001393216,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"American Physical Society (APS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]],"date-time":"2025-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755475200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UKRI Turing AI Acceleration Fellowships Programme","award":["EP\/V025198\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/V025198\/1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.aps.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Phys. Rev. Applied"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> .<\/jats:p>\n<jats:p>Neuromorphic computing, inspired by the functionality and efficiency of biological neural systems, holds promise for advancing artificial intelligence and computational paradigms. Resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs), thanks to their ability to generate neuronal dynamical responses, such as excitable spiking and refractoriness, have recently emerged as candidates for use as optoelectronic spiking neurons in novel neuromorphic computing hardware. This work explores the ability of RTD spiking neurons to deliver information encoding mechanisms analogous to those observed in biological neurons, specifically spike firing rate and spike latency encoding. We also report detailed experimental and numerical studies on the impacts that the RTD mesa radius and the circuit inductance and capacitance have on its spiking properties, providing useful information for future design of RTD-based neural networks optimized for ultrafast (greater than gigahertz rate) processing capabilities. Finally, we showcase the application of spike rate encoding in RTD neurons for the ultrafast reconstruction of a eight-level amplitude signal, effectively filtering out the noise.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1103\/n41r-3t9v","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,15]],"date-time":"2025-07-15T16:38:32Z","timestamp":1752597512000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1103\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Spiking rate and latency encoding with resonant tunneling diode neuron circuits and design influences"],"prefix":"10.1103","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6156-8394","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Donati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00n3w3b69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Strathclyde"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6592-8465","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dafydd","family":"Owen-Newns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00n3w3b69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Strathclyde"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6316-5265","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joshua","family":"Robertson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00n3w3b69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Strathclyde"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9869-7170","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xavier","family":"Porte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00n3w3b69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Strathclyde"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9751-5480","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ekaterina","family":"Malysheva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02c2kyt77","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Eindhoven University of Technology"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5668-7073","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jose","family":"Figueiredo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01hys1667","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"LIP"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01c27hj86","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Universidade de Lisboa"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1485-6665","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Bruno","family":"Romeira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04dv3aq25","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9774-1574","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Victor","family":"Dolores-Calzadilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02c2kyt77","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Eindhoven University of Technology"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4448-9034","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Antonio","family":"Hurtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00n3w3b69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Strathclyde"}]}],"member":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc1R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-021-00184-y","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc2R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2023.3308088","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc3R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/530144a","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc4R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2014.2304638","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc5R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2013.2259038","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc6R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2019.2903009","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc7R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MM.2018.112130359","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc8R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. Schemmel, L. Kriener, P. M\u00fcller, and K. Meier, in 2017 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN) (IEEE, Anchorage, AK, USA, 2017), pp. 2217\u20132226.","DOI":"10.1109\/IJCNN.2017.7966124","type":"other"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc9R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04714-0","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc10R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0156189","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc11R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1157-8","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc12R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat8084","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc13R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1088\/978-0-7503-3139-5","type":"book","volume-title":"Transport in Semiconductor Mesoscopic Devices","author":"D. K. Ferry","year":"2020"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc14R1","volume-title":"Resonant Tunnelling Diode Photonics Devices and Applications","author":"C. Ironside","year":"2023","type":"book"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc15R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TTHZ.2022.3142965","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc16R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54627-8","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc17R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.020931","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc18R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.17.024072","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc19R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/nanoph-2022-0362","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc20R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.15.034017","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc21R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11082-014-9905-3","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc22R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.133.267301","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc23R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/4.902769","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc24R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5008888","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc25R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.2007.898847","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc26R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1987.57.1.132","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc27R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.8171339","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc29R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/3.970901","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc30R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/2634-4386\/acdf17","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc31R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/55.491835","type":"journal-article"},{"key":"n41r-3t9vCc33R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15129\/fa675685-5b03-4866-a532-c291411f6ffc","type":"dataset"}],"container-title":["Physical Review Applied"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.aps.org\/article\/10.1103\/n41r-3t9v","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/harvest.aps.org\/v2\/journals\/articles\/10.1103\/n41r-3t9v\/fulltext","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]],"date-time":"2025-08-18T14:23:23Z","timestamp":1755527003000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.aps.org\/doi\/10.1103\/n41r-3t9v"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1103\/n41r-3t9v","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.48550\/arXiv.2503.21342","asserted-by":"subject"}]},"ISSN":["2331-7019"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2331-7019","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-03-28","name":"date_received","label":"Date Received","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"Published by the American Physical Society. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright_statement","label":"Copyright statement","group":{"name":"copyright","label":"copyright"}},{"value":"2025","name":"copyright_year","label":"Copyright year","group":{"name":"copyright","label":"copyright"}},{"value":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/","name":"creative_commons_license","label":"Creative Commons license","group":{"name":"licenses","label":"Licenses"}},{"value":"\u00a92025 The authors","name":"copyright_holder","label":"Copyright holder","group":{"name":"copyright","label":"copyright"}}],"article-number":"024041"}}