{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]],"date-time":"2025-10-26T14:20:17Z","timestamp":1761488417702,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,30]],"date-time":"2010-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1269907200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-heading\">Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>The purpose of this paper is to present an approach to employ evolvable hardware concepts, to effectively construct flapping\u2010wing mechanism controllers for micro robots, with the evolved dynamically complex controllers embedded in a, physically realizable, micro\u2010scale reconfigurable substrate.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-heading\">Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title><jats:p>In this paper, a continuous time recurrent neural network (CTRNN)\u2010evolvable hardware (a neuromorphic variant of evolvable hardware) framework and methodologies are employed in the process of designing the evolution experiments. CTRNN is selected as the neuromorphic reconfigurable substrate with most efficient Minipop Evolutionary Algorithm, configured to drive the evolution process. The uniqueness of the reconfigurable CTRNN substrate preferred for this study is perceived from its universal dynamics approximation capabilities and prospective to realize the same in small area and low power chips, the properties which are very much a basic requirement for flapping\u2010wing based micro robot control. A simulated micro mechanical flapping insect model is employed to conduct the feasibility study of evolving neuromorphic controllers using the above\u2010mentioned methodology.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-heading\">Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p>It has been demonstrated that the presented neuromorphic evolvable hardware approach can be effectively used to evolve controllers, to produce various flight dynamics like cruising, steering, and altitude gain in a simulated micro mechanical insect. Moreover, an appropriate feasibility is presented, to realize the evolved controllers in small area and lower power chips, with available fabrication techniques and as well as utilizing the complex dynamics nature of CTRNNs to encompass various controls ability in a architecturally static hardware circuit, which are more pertinent to meet the constraints of micro robot construction and control.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-heading\">Originality\/value<\/jats:title><jats:p>The proposed neuromorphic evolvable hardware approach along with its modules intact (CTRNNs and Minipop) can provide a general mechanism to construct\/evolve dynamically complex and optimal controllers for flapping\u2010wing mechanism based micro robots for various environments with least human intervention. Further, the evolved neuromorphic controllers in simulation study can be successfully transferred to its hardware counterpart without sacrificing its anticipated functionality and realized within a predictable area and power ranges.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/17563781011028569","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,27]],"date-time":"2010-03-27T08:08:44Z","timestamp":1269677324000},"page":"94-116","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Evolving neuromorphic flight control for a flapping\u2010wing mechanical insect"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Sanjay K.","family":"Boddhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"John C.","family":"Gallagher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"140","reference":[{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b26","unstructured":"Augustsson, P., Wolff, K. and Nordin, P. (2002), \u201cCreation of a learning flying robot by means of evolution\u201d, The Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO 02), Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, CA, pp. 1279\u201085."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beer, R.D. (1995), \u201cOn the dynamics of small continuous\u2010time recurrent neural networks\u201d, Adaptive Behavior, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 469\u2010509.","DOI":"10.1177\/105971239500300405"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beer, R.D., Chiel, H.J. and Gallagher, J.C. (1999), \u201cEvolution and analysis of model CPGs for walking II. General principles and individual variability\u201d, Journal of Computational Neuroscience, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 119\u201047.","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008920021246"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boddhu, S.K. and Gallagher, J.C. (2009), \u201cEvolving non\u2010autonomous neuromorphic flight control for a flapping\u2010wing mechanical insect model\u201d, paper presented at IEEE Workshop on Evolvable and Adaptive Hardware \u2013 2009, Nashvile, TN.","DOI":"10.1109\/WEAH.2009.4925662"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b31","unstructured":"Boddhu, S.K., Gallagher, J.C. and Vigraham, S.A. (2006), \u201cA reconfigurable continuous time recurrent neural network for evolvable hardware applications: intrinsic evolution and extrinsic verification\u201d, The Congress on Evolutionary Computation \u2013 2006, IEEE Press, Vancouver."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boddhu, S.K., Gallagher, J.C. and Vigraham, S.A. (2008), \u201cA commercial off\u2010the\u2010shelf implementation of an analog neural computer\u201d, International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools, Vol. 17, pp. 241\u201058.","DOI":"10.1142\/S021821300800387X"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b10","unstructured":"Brown, B. (2005), \u201cAn analog VLSI implementation of a continuous time recurrent neural network\u201d, Master's thesis, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiel, H.J., Beer, R.D. and Gallagher, J.C. (1999), \u201cEvolution and analysis of model CPGs for walking I. Dynamical modules\u201d, Journal of Computational Neuroscience, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 99\u2010118.","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008923704408"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, X., Schenato, L., Wu, W.\u2010C. and Sastry, S. (2006a), \u201cFlapping flight for biomimetic robotic insects: Part I \u2013 system modeling\u201d, IEEE Transactions on Robot., Vol. 22 No. 4.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2006.875480"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, X., Schenato, L., Wu, W.\u2010C. and Sastry, S. (2006b), \u201cFlapping flight for biomimetic robotic insects: Part II \u2013 flight control design\u201d, IEEE Transactions on Robot., Vol. 22 No. 4.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2006.875483"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dickinson, M.H., Lehman, F.O. and Sane, S.P. (1999), \u201cWing rotation and the aerodynamics basis of insect flight\u201d, Science, Vol. 284, pp. 1954\u201060.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.284.5422.1954"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b13","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C. (2001), \u201cEvolution and analysis of non\u2010autonomous neural networks for walking: reflexive pattern generators\u201d, The Congress on Evolutionary Computation, IEEE Press, Seoul."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b8","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C. (2003), \u201cThe once and future analog alternative: evolvable hardware and analog computation\u201d, The Proceedings of the 2003 NASA\/DOD Conference on Evolvable Hardware, IEEE Press, Chicago, IL."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b30","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C., Boddhu, S. and Vigraham, S.A. (2007), \u201cCrossing the intrinsic to extrinsic barrier in analog evolvable hardware\u201d, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation (in press).."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C., Beer, R.D., Espenschied, K.S. and Quinn, R.D. (1996), \u201cApplications of evolved locomotion controllers to a hexapod robot\u201d, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 95\u2010103.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(96)00036-X"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hopfield, J.J. (1984), \u201cNeurons with graded response properties have collective computational properties like those of two\u2010state neurons\u201d, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, Vol. 81, pp. 3088\u201092.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.81.10.3088"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hopfield, J.J. and Tank, D. (1985), \u201c\u2018Neural\u2019 computation of decisions in optimization problems\u201d, Biological Cybernetics, Vol. 52, pp. 141\u201052.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00339943"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b29","unstructured":"Kramer, G. and Gallagher, J.C. (2005), \u201cAn analysis of the search performance of a mini\u2010population evolutionary algorithm for a robot locomotion control problem\u201d, The Proceedings of the 2005 Congress on Evolutionary Computation Conference, IEEE Press, Edinburgh, pp. 2768\u201075."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b36","unstructured":"Schenato, L. (2003), \u201cAnalysis and control of flapping flight: from biological to robotic insects\u201d, PhD thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b1","unstructured":"Schenato, L., Deng, X., Wu, W.C. and Sastry, S. (2001), \u201cVirtual insect flight simulator (VIFS): a software test bed for insect flight\u201d, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Seoul, South Korea, May, Vol. 4, pp. 3885\u201092."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b24","unstructured":"van Breugel, F., Regan, W. and Lipson, H. (2006), \u201cTowards evolvable hovering flight on a physical ornithopter\u201d, The Proceedings of ALifeX Conference, Bloomington, IN, USA."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigraham, S.A. and Gallagher, J.C. (2006), \u201cMechatronics for noise control: on the capabilities of ENC\u201d, The Proceedings of the American Control Conference, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2006.1655381"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigraham, S.A., Gallagher, J.C. and Boddhu, S.K. (2005), \u201cEvolving analog controllers for correcting thermo acoustic instability in real hardware\u201d, Proceedings of the 2005 Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1068009.1068169"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z.J. (2000), \u201cTwo dimensional mechanism for insect hovering\u201d, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 85 No. 10, pp. 2216\u20109.","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.2216"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boddhu, S.K. and Gallagher, J.C. (2008), \u201cEvolved neuromorphic flight control for a flapping\u2010wing mechanical insect model\u201d, The Congress on Evolutionary Computation \u2013 2008, IEEE Press, Hong Kong.","DOI":"10.1109\/CEC.2008.4631025"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Funahashi, K. and Nakamura, Y. (1993), \u201cApproximation of dynamical systems by continuous time recurrent neural networks\u201d, Neural Networks, Vol. 6, pp. 801\u20106.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-6080(05)80125-X"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd3","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C. and Fiore, J.M. (2000), \u201cContinuous time recurrent neural networks: a paradigm for evolvable analog controller circuits\u201d, The Proceedings of the National Aerospace and Electronics Conference, October, Dayton, OH, USA, IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, pp. 299\u2010304."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd4","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C. and Vigraham, S.A. (2002), \u201cA modified compact genetic algorithm for the intrinsic evolution of continuous time recurrent neural networks\u201d, Proceedings of the 2002 Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO), Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, CA, pp. 163\u201070."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C. and Vigraham, S.A. (2003), \u201cActive control of thermoacoustic instability in a model combustor with neuromorphic evolvable hardware\u201d, paper presented at Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45105-6_54"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd6","unstructured":"Gallagher, J.C., Boddhu, S.K. and Vigraham, S.A. (2005), \u201cA reconfigurable continuous time recurrent neural network for evolvable hardware applications\u201d, The Congress on Evolutionary Computation \u2013 2005, IEEE Press, Edinburgh."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schenato, L., Deng, X. and Sastry, S. (2001), \u201cFlight control system for a micromechanical flying insect\u201d, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Seoul, South Korea, Vol. 2, pp. 1641\u20106.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2001.932846"},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd12","unstructured":"van Breugel, F. and Lipson, H. (2005), \u201cEvolving buildable flapping ornithopters\u201d, The Proceedings of Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO), Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd9","unstructured":"Vigraham, S.A. and Gallagher, J.C. (2005), \u201cA case for using Minipop as the evolutionary engine in a CTRNN\u2010EH control device: an analysis of area requirements and search efficacy\u201d, The Proceedings of the 2005 NASA\/DoD Conference on Evolvable Hardware, June 29\u2010July 1, Washington, DC."},{"key":"key2022020720453217200_frd11","unstructured":"Vigraham, S.A., Gallagher, J.C., Boddhu, S. and Gaverick, S.L. (2007), \u201cProgramming circuitry for a CTRNN chip\u201d, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Intelligent Computing and Cybernetics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1108\/17563781011028569","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/17563781011028569\/full\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/17563781011028569\/full\/html","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T23:44:19Z","timestamp":1753400659000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.emerald.com\/ijicc\/article\/3\/1\/94-116\/136010"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,30]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,30]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1108\/17563781011028569"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/17563781011028569","relation":{},"ISSN":["1756-378X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1756-378X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,30]]}}}