{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,15]],"date-time":"2026-03-15T05:42:31Z","timestamp":1773553351692,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]],"date-time":"2021-03-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616976000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ICS"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,17]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>The purpose of this paper is to examine gender differences in predictors of technology threat avoidance motivation and behavior among working US adults. Implications were considered in regard to cybersecurity awareness training motivation and perceptions of need for protective cybersecurity behavior in the workplace.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title><jats:p>A single-shot regression-based study used ordinal regression supported by K-means clustering to evaluate the moderating effects of gender on predictors of technology threat avoidance motivation and behavior on a sample of<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009206 US adult workers.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p>The regression model explained 47.5% of variance in avoidance motivation and 39% of avoidance behavior variance. Gender moderated predictive associations between several independent variables and avoidance motivation: perceived susceptibility, perceived effectiveness, perceived cost and self-efficacy. Gender also moderated the association between avoidance motivation and avoidance behavior.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Research limitations\/implications<\/jats:title><jats:p>The predictive impact of gender extends beyond the main effects in technology threat avoidance. Data frequency distributions and inter-variable relationships should be routinely considered in threat avoidance studies, especially if sample variables exhibit non-normal frequency distributions and nonlinear associations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Practical implications<\/jats:title><jats:p>Gender was significantly associated with threat avoidance motivation and avoidance behavior and exhibited notable associations with antecedents of avoidance motivation. Related insights can inform the design and delivery of training content relating to technology threat avoidance as organizations strive to more effectively leverage information technology end-users as protective assets for the enterprise.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Originality\/value<\/jats:title><jats:p>The uniqueness of this study derives from its focus and findings regarding the moderating effects of gender on technology threat avoidance factors and techniques used to measure and evaluate the associations between them.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/ics-01-2020-0008","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,27]],"date-time":"2021-03-27T08:14:50Z","timestamp":1616832890000},"page":"393-412","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Gender differences in predictors of technology threat avoidance"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Andrew R.","family":"Gillam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Alina M.","family":"Waite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"140","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1037\/h0040968","article-title":"Towards an understanding of inequity","volume":"67","year":"1963","journal-title":"The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"4","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.58729\/1941-6679.1341","article-title":"Trends in IT human resources and end-users involved in IT applications","volume":"26","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of International Technology and Information Management"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13673-018-0128-7","article-title":"User characteristics that influence judgment of social engineering attacks in social networks","volume":"8","year":"2018","journal-title":"Human-Centric Computing and Information Sciences"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.12.040","article-title":"Gender difference and employees' cyber security behaviors","volume":"69","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref005","first-page":"1","article-title":"Accessing hidden and hard-to-reach populations: snowball research strategies","volume":"33","year":"2001","journal-title":"Social Research Update"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.2.191","article-title":"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change","volume":"84","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref007","volume-title":"Implementing Effective Cyber Security Training for Endusers of Computer Networks, SHRM-SIOP Science of HR Series: Promoting Evidence-Based HR","year":"2015"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref008","first-page":"380","article-title":"Refining technology threat avoidance theory","volume":"44","year":"2019","journal-title":"Communications of the Association for Information Systems"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref009","article-title":"A taxonomy of operational cyber security risks version 2","year":"2014"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref010","article-title":"An exploration of security and privacy behavior of elders on the internet and comparison with younger adults","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Seventh Pre-ICIS Workshop on Information Security and Privacy","year":"2012"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.112.1.155","article-title":"A power primer","volume":"112","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.10.1.104","article-title":"Information privacy concerns, procedural fairness, and impersonal trust: an empirical investigation","volume":"10","year":"1999","journal-title":"Organization Science"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref013","first-page":"1","article-title":"The future cyber security workforce: going beyond technical skills for successful cyber performance","volume":"9","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.1060.0080","article-title":"An extended privacy calculus model for e-commerce transactions","volume":"17","year":"2006","journal-title":"Information Systems Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024338","article-title":"Effect size estimates: current use, calculations, and interpretation","volume":"141","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref016","article-title":"Structural equation modeling and regression: guidelines for research practice","volume":"4","year":"2000","journal-title":"Communications of the Association for Information Systems"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref017","first-page":"74","article-title":"Cyber security and human resource development implications for the enterprise","volume":"3","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cyber Security: A Peer-Reviewed Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.17705\/1jais.00447","article-title":"Got phished? Internet security and human vulnerability","volume":"18","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of the Association for Information Systems"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2017.11.015","article-title":"Correlating human traits and cyber security behavior intentions","volume":"73","year":"2018","journal-title":"Computers and Security"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref020","article-title":"The impact of information security awareness on compliance with information security policies: a phishing perspective","year":"2014"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1108\/ICS-03-2017-0018","article-title":"Comparing three models to explain precautionary online behavioural intentions","volume":"25","year":"2017","journal-title":"Information and Computer Security"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2016.1160287","article-title":"Guarding against online threats: why entrepreneurs take protective measures","volume":"35","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behaviour and Information Technology"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1108\/ICS-09-2017-0066","article-title":"Escalation of commitment as an antecedent to noncompliance with information security policy","volume":"26","year":"2018","journal-title":"Information and Computer Security"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.5395\/rde.2013.38.1.52","article-title":"Statistical notes for clinical researchers: assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis","volume":"38","year":"2013","journal-title":"Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref025","volume-title":"Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Training Evaluation","year":"2016"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-012-0216-6","article-title":"Self-disclosure and privacy calculus on social networking sites: the role of culture","volume":"4","year":"2012","journal-title":"Business and Information Systems Engineering"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.2501\/IJMR-54-5-613-633","article-title":"Myths and realities of respondent engagement in online surveys","volume":"54","year":"2012","journal-title":"International Journal of Market Research"},{"issue":"7","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.17705\/1jais.00232","article-title":"Understanding security behaviors in personal computer usage: a threat avoidance perspective","volume":"11","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of the Association for Information Systems"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.2307\/20650279","article-title":"Avoidance of information technology threats: a theoretical perspective","volume":"33","year":"2009","journal-title":"MIS Quarterly"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.22237\/jmasm\/1257035340","article-title":"Ordinal regression analysis: fitting the proportional odds model using Stata, SAS and SPSS","volume":"8","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1177\/1470785317744856","article-title":"Trap questions in online surveys: results from three web survey experiments","volume":"60","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Market Research"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.11.065","article-title":"Individual differences and information security awareness","volume":"69","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"4","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref033","article-title":"Understanding the relationship between human behavior and susceptibility to cyber attacks: a data-driven approach","volume":"8","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology (TIST)"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2013.12.003","article-title":"Determining employee awareness using the human aspects of information security questionnaire (HAIS-Q)","volume":"42","year":"2014","journal-title":"Computers and Security"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1080\/00223980.1975.9915803","article-title":"A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change","volume":"91","year":"1975","journal-title":"The Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref036","first-page":"342","article-title":"Security behaviors of healthcare providers using HIT outside of work: a technology threat avoidance perspective","volume-title":"The Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Information and Communication Systems","year":"2017"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref037","first-page":"373","article-title":"Who falls for phish? A demographic analysis of phishing susceptibility and effectiveness of interventions","volume":"13","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.06.006","article-title":"Location information disclosure in location-based social network services: privacy calculus, benefit structure, and gender differences","volume":"52","year":"2015","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref039","article-title":"The effect of perceived warning message characteristics on coping responses in data breach scenarios","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2016.02.009","article-title":"Understanding online safety behaviors: a protection motivation theory perspective","volume":"59","year":"2016","journal-title":"Computers and Security"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref041","author":"US Bureau of Labor Statistics","year":"2017"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref042","author":"US Bureau of Labor Statistics","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref043","author":"US Bureau of Labor Statistics","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref044","volume-title":"Applied Statistics: Applied Bivariate through Multivariate Techniques","year":"2008"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref045","article-title":"The influence of resignation on the privacy calculus in the context of social networking sites: an empirical analysis","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2018 European Conference of the Association for Information Systems","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref046","article-title":"Subjective norm and the privacy calculus: explaining self-disclosure on social networking sites","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2019 European Conference of the Association for Information Systems","year":"2019"},{"issue":"8","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref047","first-page":"1","article-title":"Malware avoidance motivations and behaviors: a technology threat avoidance replication","volume":"2","year":"2016","journal-title":"AIS Transactions on Replication Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/ijtd.12115","article-title":"Social support and motivation to transfer as predictors of training transfer: testing full and partial mediation using meta-analytic structural equation modelling","volume":"22","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Training and Development"},{"key":"key2021081408083014400_ref049","first-page":"1","article-title":"Evaluating cyber security vulnerabilities with the email testbed: effects of training","volume":"9","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings 19th Triennial Congress of the IEA"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2021081408083014400_ref050","first-page":"168","article-title":"Bought it, but never got it: assessing risk factors for online consumer fraud victimization","volume":"29","year":"2011","journal-title":"European Sociological Review"}],"container-title":["Information &amp; Computer Security"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/ICS-01-2020-0008\/full\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/ICS-01-2020-0008\/full\/html","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T01:22:38Z","timestamp":1753406558000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.emerald.com\/ics\/article\/29\/3\/393-412\/225472"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,17]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1108\/ICS-01-2020-0008"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/ics-01-2020-0008","relation":{},"ISSN":["2056-4961","2056-4961"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2056-4961","type":"print"},{"value":"2056-4961","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]}}}