{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T13:46:22Z","timestamp":1765547182616,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701388800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ICS"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Purpose<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Search engines, the most popular online services, are associated with several concerns. Users are concerned about the unauthorized processing of their personal data, as well as about search engines keeping track of their search preferences. Various search engines have been introduced to address these concerns, claiming that they protect users\u2019 privacy. The authors call these search engines privacy-preserving search engines (PPSEs). This paper aims to investigate the factors that motivate search engine users to use PPSEs.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>This study adopted protection motivation theory (PMT) and associated its constructs with subjective norms to build a comprehensive research model. The authors tested the research model using survey data from 830 search engine users worldwide.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Findings<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The results confirm the interpretive power of PMT in privacy-related decision-making and show that users are more inclined to take protective measures when they consider that data abuse is a more severe risk and that they are more vulnerable to data abuse. Furthermore, the results highlight the importance of subjective norms in predicting and determining PPSE use. Because subjective norms refer to perceived social influences from important others to engage or refrain from protective behavior, the authors reveal that the recommendation from people that users consider important motivates them to take protective measures and use PPSE.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Research limitations\/implications<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Despite its interesting results, this research also has some limitations. First, because the survey was conducted online, the study environment was less controlled. Participants may have been disrupted or affected, for example, by the presence of others or background noise during the session. Second, some of the survey items could possibly be misinterpreted by the respondents in the study questionnaire, as they did not have access to clarifications that a researcher could possibly provide. Third, another limitation refers to the use of the Amazon Turk tool. According Paolacci and Chandler (2014) in comparison to the US population, the MTurk workers are more educated, younger and less religiously and politically diverse. Fourth, another limitation of this study could be that Actual Use of PPSE is self-reported by the participants. This could cause bias because it is argued that internet users\u2019 statements may be in contrast with their actions in real life or in an experimental scenario (Berendt <jats:italic>et al.<\/jats:italic>, 2005, Jensen <jats:italic>et al.<\/jats:italic>, 2005); Moreover, some limitations of this study emerge from the use of PMT as the background theory of the study. PMT identifies the main factors that affect protection motivation, but other environmental and cognitive factors can also have a significant role in determining the way an individual\u2019s attitude is formed. As Rogers (1975) argued, PMT as proposed does not attempt to specify all of the possible factors in a fear appeal that may affect persuasion, but rather a systematic exposition of a limited set of components and cognitive mediational processes that may account for a significant portion of the variance in acceptance by users. In addition, as Tanner <jats:italic>et al.<\/jats:italic> (1991) argue, the \u2018PMT\u2019s assumption that the subjects have not already developed a coping mechanism is one of its limitations. Finally, another limitation is that the sample does not include users from China, which is the second most populated country. Unfortunately, DuckDuckGo has been blocked in China, so it has not been feasible to include users from China in this study.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Practical implications<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The proposed model and, specifically, the subjective norms construct proved to be successful in predicting PPSE use. This study demonstrates the need for PPSE to exhibit and advertise the technology and measures they use to protect users\u2019 privacy. This will contribute to the effort to persuade internet users to use these tools.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Social implications<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>This study sought to explore the privacy attitudes of search engine users using PMT and its constructs\u2019 association with subjective norms. It used the PMT to elucidate users\u2019 perceptions that motivate them to privacy adoption behavior, as well as how these perceptions influence the type of search engine they use. This research is a first step toward gaining a better understanding of the processes that drive people\u2019s motivation to, or not to, protect their privacy online by means of using PPSE. At the same time, this study contributes to search engine vendors by revealing that users\u2019 need to be persuaded not only about their policy toward privacy but also by considering and implementing new strategies of diffusion that could enhance the use of the PPSE.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Originality\/value<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>This research is a first step toward gaining a better understanding of the processes that drive people\u2019s motivation to, or not to, protect their privacy online by means of using PPSEs.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/ics-08-2022-0142","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]],"date-time":"2023-11-29T12:12:59Z","timestamp":1701259979000},"page":"322-343","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Exploring users\u2019 attitude towards privacy-preserving search engines: a protection motivation theory approach"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"Andreas","family":"Skalkos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aggeliki","family":"Tsohou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Karyda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Spyros","family":"Kokolakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"140","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"key2024060713480760100_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/08870449408407485","article-title":"Exploring teenagers\u2019 adaptive and maladaptive thinking in relation to the threat of HIV infection","volume":"9","year":"1994","journal-title":"Psychology and Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2024060713480760100_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1080\/08911762.2017.1412552","article-title":"Users\u2019 information privacy concerns and privacy protection behaviors in social networks","volume":"31","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Global Marketing"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2024060713480760100_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-5978(91)90020-T","article-title":"The theory of planned behavior","volume":"50","year":"1991","journal-title":"Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2024060713480760100_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2003.11.004","article-title":"Search engines and privacy","volume":"23","year":"2004","journal-title":"Computers and Security"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2024060713480760100_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.2307\/25750694","article-title":"Practicing safe computing: a multimethod empirical examination of home computer user security behavioral intentions","volume":"34","year":"2010","journal-title":"MIS Quarterly"},{"key":"key2024060713480760100_ref006","unstructured":"Arthur, C. 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