{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T23:23:44Z","timestamp":1781047424727,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,5]],"date-time":"2018-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1517788800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IMDS"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>Batteries installed on electric vehicles (EVs) should normally be removed when their capacity falls to 70-80 per cent, but they are still usable for other purposes, such as energy storage. This paper studies an EV battery closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) consisting of a battery manufacturer and a remanufacturer. The manufacturer produces new batteries by using natural resources, while the remanufacturer collects returned batteries and makes decisions based on the return quality, that is, to reuse or recycle. The purpose of this paper is to maximise the individual profits through optimising the amount of manufacturing and remanufacturing, respectively, and optimising the purchase price of returned batteries.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title><jats:p>Based on the Nash equilibrium, this paper develops a three-period model in the CLSC. In period 1, batteries are made from raw materials; in period 2, returned batteries from period 1 are sorted into low quality and high quality. Some high-quality returns can be reused for other purposes while those non-reusable returns are recycled into materials. In period 3, all the returns are recycled into materials. The analytical results are derived.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p>The result of the analyses suggest that first, among the variables that affect the (re-)manufacturing decision, the purchase price for returned batteries plays a critical role. In particular, the price of low-quality returns has more influence than the price of high quality returns. Second, the higher purchase price for re-usable returns does not necessarily lead to a higher return rate of reusable returns. Third, the manufacturer\u2019s profit is normally higher than the remanufacturer\u2019s. This suggests the need to design incentives to promote the remanufacturing sector. And finaly, although it is appreciated that maximising the utilisation of batteries over the life-cycle would benefit the environment, the economic benefit needs further investigation.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Originality\/value<\/jats:title><jats:p>Although the CLSC has been widely studied, studies on the EV battery CLSC are scarce. The EV battery CLSC is particularly challenging in terms of the reusability of returns because used EV batteries cannot be reused for the original purpose, which complicates CLSC operations. This paper explores the interrelationship between manufacturer and remanufacturer, explaining the reasons why recycling is still underdeveloped, and suggests the possibility of enhancing remanufacturing profitability.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/imds-04-2017-0132","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,29]],"date-time":"2017-12-29T07:17:52Z","timestamp":1514531872000},"page":"283-302","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":81,"title":["Optimising quantity of manufacturing and remanufacturing in an electric vehicle battery closed-loop supply chain"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"118","author":[{"given":"Xiaoyu","family":"Gu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petros","family":"Ieromonachou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming-Lang","family":"Tseng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"140","reference":[{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmadi, L., Yip, A., Fowler, M., Young, S.B. and Fraser, R.A. (2014), \u201cEnvironmental feasibility of re-use of electric vehicle batteries\u201d, Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, Vol. 6, pp. 64-74.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seta.2014.01.006"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.08.056","article-title":"Technical and economic assessment of the secondary use of repurposed electric vehicle batteries in the residential sector to support solar energy","volume":"181","year":"2016","journal-title":"Applied Energy"},{"issue":"10","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.1080.0893","article-title":"Remanufacturing as a Marketing Strategy","volume":"54","year":"2008","journal-title":"Management Science"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref004","unstructured":"Ayre, J. (2016), \u201cNissan Reuses EV Batteries For Home Energy Storage\u2013xStorage\u201d, Cleantechnica, available at: https:\/\/cleantechnica.com\/2016\/05\/15\/nissan-recycles-ev-batteries-home-energy-storage\/ (accessed 30 December 2016)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aziz, M., Oda, T. and Kashiwagi, T. (2015), \u201cExtended utilization of electric vehicles and their re-used batteries to support the building energy management system\u201d, Energy Procedia, Vol. 75, pp. 1938-1943.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2015.07.226"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref006","unstructured":"Binks, S. (2016), \u201cBattery recycling process\u201d, available at: www.removemycar.co.uk\/battery-recycling.html (accessed 8 August 2017)."},{"issue":"1","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2013.08.025","article-title":"Competition for cores in remanufacturing","volume":"233","year":"2014","journal-title":"European Journal of Operational Research"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, X., Lai, M., Li, X., Li, Y. and Wu, X. (2014), \u201cOptimal acquisition and production policy in a hybrid manufacturing\/ remanufacturing system with core acquisition at different quality levels\u201d, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 233 No. 2, pp. 374-382.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2013.07.017"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref009","unstructured":"Dalton, A. (2016), \u201cBMW will repurpose i3 batteries for home energy storage\u201d, available at: www.engadget.com\/2016\/06\/21\/bmw-will-repurpose-i3-batteries-for-home-energy-storage\/ (accessed 30 December 2016)."},{"issue":"8","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.1050.0369","article-title":"Market segmentation and product technology selection for remanufacturable products","volume":"51","year":"2005","journal-title":"Management Science"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref011","unstructured":"Erp-batteries (2012), \u201cHow are batteries recycled?\u201d, available at: www.recycle-more.co.uk\/how-is-it-recycled-\/battery-recycling (accessed 12 December 2016)."},{"issue":"3","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1937-5956.2006.tb00250.x","article-title":"The effect of competition on recovery strategies","volume":"15","year":"2006","journal-title":"Production and Operations Management"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrer, G. and Swaminathan, J.M. (2010), \u201cManaging new and differentiated remanufactured products\u201d, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 203 No. 2, pp. 370-379.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2009.08.007"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaines, L. and Singh, M. (1995), \u201cEnergy and environmental impacts of electric vehicle battery production and recycling\u201d, available at: https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc672416\/ (accessed 18 November 2016).","DOI":"10.4271\/951865"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1787\/9789264279469-en","article-title":"Global EV outlook 2016: beyond one million electric cars","author":"International Energy Agengy","year":"2016"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref400","unstructured":"International Energy Agency (2017), \u201cGlobal EV outlook 2017: two million and counting\u201d, available at: www.iea.org\/publications\/freepublications\/publication\/GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf (accessed 12 January 2017)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref017","unstructured":"Kelty, K. (2011), \u201cTesla\u2019s closed loop battery recycling program\u201d, available at: www.tesla.com\/blog\/teslas-closed-loop-battery-recycling-program (accessed 18 November 2016)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref018","unstructured":"Lambert, F. (2017), \u201cTesla is now claiming 35% battery cost reduction at \u2018Gigafactory 1\u2019 \u2013 hinting at breakthrough cost below $125\/kWh | Electrek\u201d, available at: https:\/\/electrek.co\/2017\/02\/18\/tesla-battery-cost-gigafactory-model-3\/ (accessed 8 August 2017)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref019","first-page":"381","article-title":"Second use of retired lithium-ion battery packs from electric vehicles: technological challenges, cost analysis and optimal business model","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE 2012 International Symposium on Computer, Consumer and Control (IS3C), Taichung"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref020","unstructured":"McIntire-Strasburg, J. (2015), \u201cThe electric vehicle battery \u2018can and should be recycled\u2019\u201d, available at: https:\/\/cleantechnica.com\/2015\/07\/23\/electric-vehicle-battery-can-recycled\/ (accessed 12 November 2016)."},{"issue":"2","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1937-5956.2001.tb00074.x","article-title":"Competition in remanufacturing","volume":"10","year":"2001","journal-title":"Production and Operations Management"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref022","unstructured":"Mark, M. (2014), \u201cThe backgground fot Tesla Model S Battery\u201d, available at: https:\/\/xueqiu.com\/8940100817\/30082286 (accessed 8 August 2017)."},{"issue":"2","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2007.02.042","article-title":"Competition in remanufacturing and the effects of government subsidies","volume":"111","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal of Production Economics"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref024","unstructured":"Neubauer, J. and Pesaran, A. (2010), \u201cPHEV\/EV Li-Ion battery second-use project\u201d, paper presented at the Advanced Automotive Batteries Conference (AABC), Washington, April, available at: www.nrel.gov\/docs\/fy10osti\/48018.pdf (accessed 20 November 2016)."},{"issue":"23","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.06.053","article-title":"The ability of battery second use strategies to impact plug-in electric vehicle prices and serve utility energy storage applications","volume":"196","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Power Sources"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref026","unstructured":"Nissan (2015), \u201cRecycling your old car battery\u201d, Nissan, available at: www.nissan.co.uk\/recycle-your-old-car-battery.html (accessed 16 November, 2016)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref027","first-page":"1","article-title":"Electric vehicle battery \u2013 wind storage system","year":"2011"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref028","unstructured":"Tesla (2016), \u201cModel S\u201d, available at: www.tesla.com\/en_GB\/models (accessed 30 December 2016)."},{"issue":"1\/2","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1108\/eb057348","article-title":"Drive electric","volume":"84","year":"1984","journal-title":"Industrial Management & Data Systems"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref030","unstructured":"Voelcker, J. (2016), \u201cReusing electric-car batteries: great idea, lots of practical challenges\u201d, available at: www.greencarreports.com\/news\/1103363_reusing-electric-car-batteries-great-idea-lots-of-practical-challenges (accessed 30 December 2016)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref031","unstructured":"Volkswagen (2016), \u201cBattery recycling\u201d, available at: www.volkswagen.co.uk\/about-us\/environment\/battery-recycling (accessed 15 November 2016)."},{"issue":"6","key":"key2020093022013916000_ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jom.2007.01.014","article-title":"Competitive strategy in remanufacturing and the impact of take-back laws","volume":"25","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Operations Management"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref033","unstructured":"Will Date (2015), \u201cBattery recycling costs expected to shoot up\u201d, available at: www.letsrecycle.com\/news\/latest-news\/battery-collection-costs-expected-to-shoot-up\/ (accessed 8 August 2017)."},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref034","first-page":"2170","article-title":"Trial study on EV battery recycling standardization development","volume":"610","year":"2013","journal-title":"Advanced Materials Research"},{"key":"key2020093022013916000_ref035","article-title":"Recycling used lead acid batteries","year":"2009"}],"container-title":["Industrial Management &amp; Data Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/IMDS-04-2017-0132\/full\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/IMDS-04-2017-0132\/full\/html","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T21:51:50Z","timestamp":1753393910000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.emerald.com\/imds\/article\/118\/1\/283-302\/179003"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,5]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,5]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1108\/IMDS-04-2017-0132"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/imds-04-2017-0132","relation":{},"ISSN":["0263-5577"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0263-5577","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,5]]}}}