{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T20:08:24Z","timestamp":1781726904379,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,25]],"date-time":"2022-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650844800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ITSE"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>In intelligent tutoring systems (ITS), learners were often granted limited authority and are forced to obey the decision of the system which might not satisfy their needs. Failure to grant learners sufficient autonomy could yield unexpected effects that hinder learning, including undermining learners\u2019 motivation, priming learners\u2019 aversion to the algorithm. On the contrary, granting learners overwhelming autonomy could also be harmful as the absence of learning support would also have a negative impact on learning. As such, this study aims to design and implement an intelligent tutoring system that offers learners proper autonomy.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title><jats:p>The main learning activity in the system is doing exercises, and by finishing exercises learners could earn virtual coins. Based on item response theory, exercises are administered to learners with proper difficulty. Based on a recommended difficulty parameter predicted by the system, learners could manually modify the difficulty of the exercises, they could earn more credits by finishing more challenging exercises. Meanwhile, a pedagogical agent is embedded. Learners could customize the agent\u2019s personality jointly with the system to create the learning context they prefer.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p>A intelligent tutoring system with proper learner autonomy (LA) is designed and implemented.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title content-type=\"abstract-subheading\">Originality\/value<\/jats:title><jats:p>Few previous researches have noticed the potentially important role that LA plays in ITS. Learning might be facilitated using such a design.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/itse-12-2021-0210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]],"date-time":"2022-04-22T01:25:50Z","timestamp":1650590750000},"page":"510-525","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Design and implementation of an intelligent tutoring system in the view of learner autonomy"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Huixiao","family":"Le","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiyou","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"140","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref001","article-title":"Predicting learners performance using artificial neural networks in linear programming intelligent tutoring system","year":"2012"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anthro.30.1.109","article-title":"Language and agency","volume":"30","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annual Review of Anthropology"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref003","first-page":"58","article-title":"Why Moodle","year":"2008"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-020-09748-7","article-title":"A meta-analysis of signaling principle in multimedia learning environments","volume":"68","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1080\/09500693.2013.825066","article-title":"What is \u2018agency\u2019? Perspectives in science education research","volume":"36","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal of Science Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-016-0105-0","article-title":"Stupid tutoring systems, intelligent humans","volume":"26","year":"2016","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764204271507","article-title":"Control as an engagement feature for young children\u2019s attention to and learning of computer content","volume":"48","year":"2005","journal-title":"American Behavioral Scientist"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref008","article-title":"Autonomy in technology design","volume-title":"CHI'14 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems","year":"2014"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09587-1","article-title":"Effectiveness of multimedia pedagogical agents predicted by diverse theories: a meta-analysis","volume":"33","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref010","first-page":"1","article-title":"Xgboost: extreme gradient boosting","volume":"1","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00797.x","article-title":"Facilitating internalization: the self-determination theory perspective","volume":"62","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of personality"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroecorev.2015.05.004","article-title":"The effect of cognitive load on economic decision making: a survey and new experiments","volume":"78","year":"2015","journal-title":"European Economic Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000033","article-title":"Algorithm aversion: people erroneously avoid algorithms after seeing them err","volume":"144","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2016.2643","article-title":"Overcoming algorithm aversion: people will use imperfect algorithms if they can (even slightly) modify them","volume":"64","year":"2018","journal-title":"Management Science"},{"issue":"5","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.741","article-title":"What people want from their professionals: attitudes toward decision-making strategies","volume":"25","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Decision Making"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.100.3.363","article-title":"The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance","volume":"100","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref015","first-page":"466","article-title":"Software agents and user autonomy","volume-title":"Proceedings of the First International Conference on Autonomous Agents","year":"1997"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1145\/257089.257434","article-title":"User autonomy: who should control what and when?","volume-title":"Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems","year":"1996"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref017","article-title":"Tabu search","volume-title":"Handbook of Combinatorial Optimization","year":"1998"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref040","first-page":"100","article-title":"The design and implementation of a computerized adaptive testing system for school mathematics based on item response theory","year":"2020"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3091","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.03091","article-title":"Effects of an autonomy-supportive physical activity program for compensatory care students during recess time","volume":"10","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep4102_1","article-title":"Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching","volume":"41","year":"2006","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref020","article-title":"What is student agency? An ontological exploration in the context of research on student engagement","year":"2014"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654315581420","article-title":"Effectiveness of intelligent tutoring systems: a meta-analytic review","volume":"86","year":"2016","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1504\/IJIL.2020.106813","article-title":"The analysis of timeout behaviours in online tests","volume":"27","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Innovation and Learning"},{"issue":"6","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/s40037-016-0308-y","article-title":"Effect size \u2013 large, medium, and small","volume":"5","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspectives on Medical Education"},{"issue":"4","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1093\/jcr\/ucz013","article-title":"Resistance to medical artificial intelligence","volume":"46","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Consumer Research"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref023","first-page":"254","article-title":"Formal framework for agency and autonomy","year":"1995","journal-title":"Icmas"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12604","article-title":"Impact of student agency on learning performance and learning experience in a flipped classroom","volume":"50","year":"2019","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"4","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037123","article-title":"Intelligent tutoring systems and learning outcomes: a meta-analysis","volume":"106","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1177\/10883576060210010201","article-title":"The effects of presenting high-preference items, paired with choice, via computer-based video programming on task completion of students with autism","volume":"21","year":"2006","journal-title":"Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2018.1558257","article-title":"Intelligent tutoring systems: a systematic review of characteristics, applications, and evaluation methods","volume":"29","year":"2021","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"issue":"3","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1080\/00220973.1979.11011682","article-title":"Learner choice and task engagement","volume":"47","year":"1979","journal-title":"The Journal of Experimental Education"},{"issue":"4","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.637","article-title":"The relative influence of advice from human experts and statistical methods on forecast adjustments","volume":"22","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Decision Making"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref029","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ltm: an R package for latent variable modeling and item response analysis","volume":"17","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref030","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards autonomous cars: the effect of autonomy levels on acceptance and user experience","year":"2014"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref031","first-page":"335","article-title":"Is more agency better? The impact of student agency on game-based learning","year":"2017"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref032","article-title":"Human and computer control of undersea teleoperators","year":"1978"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.12.011","article-title":"Does agency matter?: Exploring the impact of controlled behaviors within a game-based environment","volume":"82","year":"2015","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"key":"key2022102505492453100_ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103781","article-title":"The agency effect: the impact of student agency on learning, emotions, and problem-solving behaviors in a game-based learning environment","volume":"147","year":"2020","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"issue":"4","key":"key2022102505492453100_ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2011.611369","article-title":"The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems","volume":"46","year":"2011","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"}],"container-title":["Interactive Technology and Smart Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/ITSE-12-2021-0210\/full\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/ITSE-12-2021-0210\/full\/html","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T21:57:17Z","timestamp":1753394237000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.emerald.com\/itse\/article\/19\/4\/510-525\/174676"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,25]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,25]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1108\/ITSE-12-2021-0210"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/itse-12-2021-0210","relation":{},"ISSN":["1741-5659","1741-5659"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1741-5659","type":"print"},{"value":"1741-5659","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,25]]}}}