{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T09:02:15Z","timestamp":1770886935374,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"9\/10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,3]],"date-time":"2014-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1414972800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,3]]},"abstract":"\n Purpose<\/jats:title>\n \u2013 The purpose of this paper is to explain some phenomena observed in the acquisition of motor skills: the loss of conscious access to knowledge of the structure of a skill and the awareness that an error has been made prior to the receipt of knowledge of results. Although there are rich descriptive accounts of skill acquisition in the literature, there are no satisfactory explanatory models of the cognitive processes involved. The paper provides such a model. <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title>\n \u2013 In the 1970s, the first author implemented a computer program model of the cognitive processes involved in learning and skill acquisition, based on a series of empirical investigations. Recently, with assistance from the second author, the model has been reviewed, updated and re-implemented. The paper sets this work in the broader context of a theory of learning and teaching, conversation theory. <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Findings<\/jats:title>\n \u2013 The model provides a constructivist account of skill acquisition and associated phenomena. The model provides theoretical foundations for conversation theory. <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Practical implications<\/jats:title>\n \u2013 The model adds to the understanding of motor skill acquisition and to the understanding of processes of learning and teaching in general. <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Originality\/value<\/jats:title>\n \u2013 The model and its interpretation are an original contribution to the skills acquisition literature.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/k-07-2014-0157","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,5]],"date-time":"2014-11-05T08:02:57Z","timestamp":1415174577000},"page":"1399-1411","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Learning about learning: a cybernetic model of skill acquisition"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"43","author":[{"given":"Bernard","family":"Scott","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abhinav","family":"Bansal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"140","reference":[{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b1","unstructured":"Bansal, A.\n (2010), \u201cA cognitive architecture for learning and skill acquisition\u201d, Internal Report, Department of Engineering Systems and Mathematics, Cranfield University, Defence Academy, College of Management and Technology, Shrivenham."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b2","unstructured":"Bruner, J.S.\n (1996), \n The Culture of Education\n , Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b3","unstructured":"Buchinger, E.\n and \n Scott, B.\n (2010), \u201cComparing conceptions of learning: Pask and Luhmann\u201d, \n Constructivist Foundations\n , Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 109-120."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b4","unstructured":"Davids, K.\n , \n Button, C.\n and \n Bennett, S.\n (2008), \n Dynamics of Skill Acquisition. A Constraints-Led Approach\n , Human Kinetics, Champagne, IL."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b5","unstructured":"Deacon, T.\n (2012), \n Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter\n , Norton, New York, NY."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b6","unstructured":"Dehaene, S.\n (2014), \n Consciousness and the Brain: Deciphering How the Brain Codes our Thoughts\n , Viking Press, New York, NY."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gentile, A.M.\n (1972), \u201cA working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching\u201d, \n Quest\n , Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 3-23.","DOI":"10.1080\/00336297.1972.10519717"},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b8","unstructured":"Glanville, R.\n (2002), \u201cSecond order cybernetics. Invited chapter for Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems\n \u201d, UNESCO, available at: www.eolss.net\/ (accessed 3 March 2014), Reprinted as chapter 1.11 of Glanville, R. (2012) Cybernetic Circles, The Black Boox, Vol. 1, Echoraum-WISDOM, Vienna."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b9","unstructured":"Glanville, R.\n (2014), \u201cCybernetics: thinking through the technology\u201d, in \n Arnold, D.\n (Ed.), \n Traditions of Systems Theory: Major Figures and Contemporary Developments\n , Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 45-77."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b10","unstructured":"Harri-Augstein, S.\n and \n Thomas, L.F.\n (1991), \n Learning Conversations\n , Routledge, London."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b11","unstructured":"James, W.\n (1890), \n The Principles of Psychology\n , Henry Holt and Co., New York, NY."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b12","unstructured":"Kahneman, D.\n (2011), \n Thinking, Fast and Slow\n , Allen Lane, London."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b13","unstructured":"Kolb, D.A.\n (1984), \n Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development\n , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b14","unstructured":"Mallen, G.\n (2013), \u201cEarly computer models of cognitive systems and the beginnings of cognitive systems dynamics\u201d, \n Constructivist Foundations\n , Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 137-138."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b15","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (1965), \u201cThe cybernetics of evolutionary processes and of self-organising systems\u201d, Misc: Proceeding 3rd Congress Intnl Assoc of Cybernetics, Namur, Gauthier Villars, Namur."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b16","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (1968), \u201cMan as a system that needs to learn\u201d, in \n Stewart, D.\n (Ed.), \n Automaton Theory and Learning Systems\n , Academic Press, London, pp. 137-208."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b17","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (1975a), \n The Cybernetics of Human Learning and Performance\n , Hutchinson, London."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b18","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (1975b), \n Conversation, Cognition and Learning\n , Elsevier, Amsterdam."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b19","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (1976), \n Conversation Theory: Applications in Education and Epistemology\n , Elsevier, Amsterdam."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (1996), \u201cHeinz von Foerster's self-organisation, the progenitor of conversation and interaction theories\u201d, \n Systems Research\n , Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 349-362.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1735(199609)13:3<349::AID-SRES103>3.0.CO;2-G"},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b21","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n and \n Mallen, G.\n (1969), \u201cSome recent advances in adaptively controlled teaching systems\u201d, Conference proceedings of the 5th international congress on cybernetics, Gauthier-Villars, Namur."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b22","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n and \n Scott, B.\n (1969), \n A Comparative Study of Adaptively Controlled and Other Methods of Instruction (MOD Contract No. A\/70\/GEN.9725)\n , System Research Ltd, Richmond, Surrey."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n and \n Scott, B.\n (1972), \u201cLearning strategies and individual competence\u201d, \n International Journal of Man-Machine Studies\n , Vol. 4, pp. 217-253.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(72)80004-X"},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n and \n Scott, B.\n (1973), \u201cCASTE: A system for exhibiting learning strategies and regulating uncertainty\u201d, \n International Journal of Man-Machine Studies\n , Vol. 5, pp. 17-52.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(73)80008-2"},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n , \n Scott, B.\n and \n Kallikourdis, D.\n (1973), \u201cA theory of conversations and individuals (exemplified by the learning process on CASTE)\u201d, \n International Journal of Man-Machine Studies\n , Vol. 5, pp. 443-566.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(73)80002-1"},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b666","unstructured":"Pask, G.\n (2011), \u201cThe cybernetics of self-organisation, learning and evolution\u201d, Papers 1960-1972, Selected and Introduced by Bernard Scott, Echoraum, Vienna."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rescher, N.\n (1973), \n Conceptual Idealism\n , Basil Blackwell, Oxford.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-6746-6_13"},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b27","unstructured":"Rescher, N.\n (1977), \n Methodological Pragmatism\n , Basil Blackwell, Oxford."},{"key":"key2020122720222114600_b28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryle, G.\n (1971), \u201cThinking and self-teaching\u201d, \n Proc. of the Philos. of Educ. 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