{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T16:41:19Z","timestamp":1773765679972,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the relationship between simulation training and police officers' ability to think creatively in crises.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This quantitative study used instructional design principles including aspects of Cognitive Load Theory to explore the cognitive load and creative thinking of police officers training with a MILO Range use-of-force simulator.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>When provided with scenarios requiring de-escalation of emotionally disturbed persons, and when encouraged to be creative or innovative in their approach to de-escalate, officers were observed being more creative after experiencing a second simulation with the same scenario; however, multiple repetitions of similar scenarios did not result in an innovative response.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Practical implications<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results of this study suggest that cognitive load could be affected by changing the manner in which the officers train in simulation. When a simulator curriculum is designed with the incorporation of cognitive load theory, there is potential to foster creative thinking in a situation where de-escalation is the goal.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Originality\/value<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Instructional design principles, consideration of cognitive load and creative problem-solving are nontraditional methods in the law enforcement field and in use-of-force training.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/pijpsm-06-2020-0101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,12]],"date-time":"2020-12-12T02:41:26Z","timestamp":1607740886000},"page":"455-468","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["The effects of simulator training on the development of creative thinking in law enforcement officers"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"44","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7630-6722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joy","family":"VerPlanck","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Michigan University , Mt. Pleasant, Michigan,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"140","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-010-9130-y","article-title":"Using electroencephalography to measure cognitive load","volume":"22","author":"Antonenko","year":"2010","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2010.12.044","article-title":"The impact of constructivist and cognitive distance instructional design on the learner's creativity","volume":"3","author":"Aqda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia computer science"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref003","author":"Bennell","year":"2005","journal-title":"The Effectiveness of Use of Force Simulation Training Final Report"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-8971.13.1.35","article-title":"Does use-of-force simulation training in Canadian police agencies incorporate principles of effective training?","volume":"13","author":"Bennell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychology, Public Policy, and Law"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref005","volume-title":"Comprehensive Healthcare Simulation: Pediatrics. Comprehensive Healthcare Simulation","author":"Bong","year":"2016"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326985EP3801_7","article-title":"Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning","volume":"38","author":"Brunken","year":"2003","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref007","volume-title":"Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load","author":"Clark","year":"2006"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref008","first-page":"2144","article-title":"Improving expertise in local law enforcement: utilizing virtual environments to assess officer performance and standardize training procedures","author":"Connelly","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref009","volume-title":"Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research","author":"Creswell","year":"2015"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026031710220972900_ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326934crj1803_13","article-title":"In praise of convergent thinking","volume":"18","author":"Cropley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Creativity Research Journal"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026031710220972900_ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167211435795","article-title":"Working memory benefits creative insight, musical improvisation, and original ideation through maintained task-focused attention","volume":"38","author":"De Dreu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.100.1.223","article-title":"A comparison of three measures of cognitive load: evidence for separable measures of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load","volume":"100","author":"DeLeeuw","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01797","article-title":"Complex motor learning and police training: applied, cognitive, and clinical perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Di Nota","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref014","unstructured":"Executive Core Qualifications for Senior Executive Service\n           (2018), \u201cUS Office of personnel management\u201d, available at:\u2008https:\/\/www.opm.gov\/policy-data-oversight\/senior-executive-service\/executive-core-qualifications\/#url=ecq1 (accessed\u20087 September 2018)."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026031710220972900_ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2923.2012.04355.x","article-title":"Emotion, cognitive load and learning outcomes during simulation training","volume":"46","author":"Fraser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Medical Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026031710220972900_ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1097\/SIH.0000000000000097","article-title":"Cognitive load theory for the design of medical simulations","volume":"10","author":"Fraser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Simulation in Healthcare: The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref017","unstructured":"Griffith, D.\n           (2018), \u201cTraining simulators: going beyond shoot, don't shoot\u201d, available at:\u2008https:\/\/www.policemag.com\/342423\/training-simulators-going-beyond-shoot-dont-shoot."},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref018","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1109\/VLHCC.2013.6645274","article-title":"Applying cognitive load theory to generate effective programming tutorials","author":"Harms","year":"2013"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s11292-017-9294-2","article-title":"The impact of work shift and fatigue on police officer response in simulated interactions with citizens","volume":"14","author":"James","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Criminology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00512","article-title":"Identifying psychophysiological indices of expert vs. novice performance in deadly force judgment and decision making","volume":"8","author":"Johnson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00330","article-title":"The structure of creative cognition in the human brain","volume":"7","author":"Jung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026031710220972900_ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6975.2012.01494.x","article-title":"Thinking, fast and slow","volume":"79","author":"Kahneman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Risk and Insurance"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2014.02.004","article-title":"Using a multimedia learning tool to improve creative performance","volume":"13","author":"Kassim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thinking Skills and Creativity"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/a0013688","article-title":"Beyond big and little: the four C model of creativity","volume":"13","author":"Kaufman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Review of General Psychology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref025","article-title":"Development and validation of two instruments measuring intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load","volume":"8:1997","author":"Klepsch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref026","first-page":"3","article-title":"Introducing TPCK","volume-title":"Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) for Educators","author":"Koehler","year":"2008"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref027","first-page":"8","article-title":"Anonymous","volume":"49","author":"Lack of police training led to shooting death","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trial"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026031710220972900_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1518\/155534307X264861","article-title":"Shooting decisions by police firearms officers","volume":"1","author":"Mitchell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of cognitive engineering and decision making"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026031710220972900_ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1108\/13639511311329723","article-title":"Improving police training from a cognitive load perspective","volume":"36","author":"Mugford","year":"2013","journal-title":"Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref030","article-title":"Behavioral psychology","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict","author":"Murray","year":"2000"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1111\/medu.12732","article-title":"Limitations of subjective cognitive load measures in simulation-based procedural training","volume":"49","author":"Naismith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Medical Education"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"p87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2006.02.004","article-title":"Optimising worked example instruction: different ways to increase germane cognitive load","volume":"16","author":"Paas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1994.79.1.419","article-title":"Measurement of cognitive load in instructional research","volume":"79","author":"Paas","year":"1994","journal-title":"Perceptual and Motor Skills"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.122","article-title":"Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: a cognitive-load approach","volume":"86","author":"Paas","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326985EP3801_1","article-title":"Cognitive load theory and instructional design: recent developments","volume":"38","author":"Paas","year":"2003","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.84.4.429","article-title":"Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: a cognitive-load approach","volume":"84","author":"Paas","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref037","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-39955-3_35","article-title":"Physiological measures of arousal during soldier-relevant tasks performed in a simulated environment","author":"Patton","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref038","first-page":"155","article-title":"Using the immersive cognitive readiness simulator to validate the ThreatFire belt as an operational stressor\u202f: a pilot study","author":"Patton","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref039","unstructured":"Perkins, D.\n           (2017), \u201cNew era of policing: thinking outside the box\u201d, available at:\u2008https:\/\/shsu-ir.tdl.org\/handle\/20.500.11875\/2278."},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref040","first-page":"1","article-title":"All I really need to know (about creative thinking) I learned (by studying how children learn) in kindergarten","author":"Resnick","year":"2007"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026031710220972900_ref041","first-page":"18","article-title":"Sowing the seeds for a more creative society","volume":"35","author":"Resnick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Learning and Leading with Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1080\/10400419.2012.650092","article-title":"The standard definition of creativity","volume":"24","author":"Runco","year":"2012","journal-title":"Creativity Research Journal"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref043","unstructured":"Ryan, J.\n           (2007), \u201cTraining liability in the use of deadly force\u201d, available at:\u2008https:\/\/www.patc.com\/weeklyarticles\/print\/uof-training-liability.pdf."},{"issue":"sup1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327876mp1803s_2","article-title":"The effect of brief situational awareness training in a police shooting simulator: an experimental study","volume":"18","author":"Saus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Military Psychology"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-019-09465-5","article-title":"Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 Years later","volume":"31","author":"Sweller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026031710220972900_ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1202_4","article-title":"Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning","volume":"12","author":"Sweller","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026031710220972900_ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-4752(94)90003-5","article-title":"Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design","volume":"4","author":"Sweller","year":"1994","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026031710220972900_ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2006.02.005","article-title":"The worked example effect and human cognition","volume":"16","author":"Sweller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026031710220972900_ref049","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-008-9091-6","article-title":"Cognitive bases of human creativity","volume":"21","author":"Sweller","year":"2009","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026031710220972900_ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-198104000-00008","article-title":"The stress of boredom and monotony: a consideration of the evidence","volume":"43","author":"Thackray","year":"1981","journal-title":"Psychosomatic Medicine"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026031710220972900_ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2010.10.004","article-title":"Effects of worked examples, example-problem, and problem-example pairs on novices' learning","volume":"36","author":"van Gog","year":"2011","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026031710220972900_ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1108\/PIJPSM-11-2016-0166","article-title":"How police officers perform in encounters with the public: measuring what matters at the individual level","volume":"41","author":"Vila","year":"2018","journal-title":"Policing: International Journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026031710220972900_ref053","first-page":"44","volume":"29","author":"Virtual reality for soldiers, cops","year":"1995","journal-title":"The Futurist"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref054","unstructured":"Weichselbaum, S. and Schwartzapfel, B. (2017), \u201cWhen warriors put on the badge\u201d, available at:\u2008https:\/\/www.themarshallproject.org\/2017\/03\/30\/when-warriors-put-on-the-badge."},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716219887366","article-title":"Social interaction training to reduce police use of force","volume":"687","author":"Wolfe","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref056","article-title":"Effects of virtual reality on the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy development of law enforcement neophytes","author":"Wright","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026031710220972900_ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01219","article-title":"How does culture shape creativity? A mini-review","volume":"10","author":"Yong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"}],"container-title":["Policing: An International Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/content\/doi\/10.1108\/PIJPSM-06-2020-0101\/full\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/pijpsm\/article-pdf\/44\/3\/455\/2103400\/pijpsm-06-2020-0101.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/pijpsm\/article-pdf\/44\/3\/455\/2103400\/pijpsm-06-2020-0101.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T14:23:01Z","timestamp":1773757381000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/pijpsm\/article\/44\/3\/455\/320850\/The-effects-of-simulator-training-on-the"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/pijpsm-06-2020-0101","relation":{},"ISSN":["1363-951X","1758-695X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1363-951X","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-695X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]]}}}