{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T05:51:19Z","timestamp":1776318679797,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"3","funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["Project UIDB\/05037\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Project UIDB\/05037\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study aims to examine the level of necessity of each condition proposed in Porter\u2019s diamond model, considering \u201cmultinational enterprise (MNE) penetration\u201d, \u201cgovernance quality\u201d and \u201cdigitalisation\u201d as additional conditions. In doing so, it introduces a new condition \u2013 digitalisation \u2013 suggesting that it has a direct effect on national competitiveness.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Using data from 60 countries and necessary condition analysis, necessary conditions for national competitiveness are identified, as well as the bottleneck levels for each level of the outcome of interest.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results emphasise the importance of digitalisation for national competitiveness, suggesting that it should be considered as an additional condition given its direct effects on national competitiveness. The results also show that \u201cfactor conditions\u201d and \u201cMNE penetration\u201d are not necessary to build national competitive advantage in the digital age.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Originality\/value<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Different from past research, this study tests the extent to which high values of antecedent conditions are necessary for achieving a national competitive advantage. The findings provide novel insights that might inform policy design and future research, emphasising the importance of digital adoption and showing the required level of each condition for a specific levels of the outcome.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/cr-05-2025-0160","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T12:10:13Z","timestamp":1761826213000},"page":"498-511","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["National competitive advantage in the digital age: a necessary condition analysis"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"36","author":[{"given":"Pedro","family":"Torres","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra CeBER, Faculty of Economics, , Coimbra,","place":["Portugal"]}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Godinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra CeBER, Faculty of Economics, , Coimbra,","place":["Portugal"]}]}],"member":"140","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref001","first-page":"385","volume-title":"Handbook of Economic Growth,","author":"Acemoglu","year":"2005"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026041601114656400_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1057\/s41267-020-00353-7","article-title":"Methodological practices in international business research: an after-action review of challenges and solutions","volume":"51","author":"Aguinis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of International Business Studies"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1396","article-title":"Digitalization and globalization in a turbulent world: centrifugal and centripetal forces","volume":"11","author":"Autio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref004","first-page":"109","article-title":"A note on the Austrian \u2018diamond\u2019","volume":"33","author":"Bellak","year":"1993","journal-title":"Management International Review"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026041601114656400_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1057\/jibs.2013.23","article-title":"MNEs as border-crossing multi-location enterprises: the role of discontinuities in geographic space","volume":"44","author":"Beugelsdijk","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of International Business Studies"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1427","article-title":"Move fast and break things: reassessing IB research in the light of the digital revolution","volume":"12","author":"Birkinshaw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1108\/RAUSP-11-2020-0253","article-title":"Countries\u2019 governance and competitiveness: business environment mediating effect","volume":"57","author":"Bontempo","year":"2022","journal-title":"RAUSP Management Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.5465\/amp.2016.0048","article-title":"Competing in digital markets: a platform-based perspective","volume":"35","author":"Cennamo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Academy of Management Perspectives"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1177\/01492063211045023","article-title":"Governance and design of digital platforms: a review and future research directions on a meta-organization","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Management"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026041601114656400_ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-6486.00221","article-title":"Porter\u2019s competitive advantage of nations: time for the final judgment?","volume":"37","author":"Davies","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Management Studies"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref011","unstructured":"Dul, J.\n           (2015), \u201cNecessary condition analysis (NCA) with R (version 4.0.0): a quick start guide\u201d, revised 18 Feb 2024, available at:Link to the cited article. (accessed30 April 2025)."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428115584005","article-title":"Necessary condition analysis (NCA): logic and methodology of \u2018necessary but not sufficient\u2019 causality","volume":"19","author":"Dul","year":"2016","journal-title":"Organizational Research Methods"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428118795272","article-title":"A statistical significance test for necessary condition analysis","volume":"23","author":"Dul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Organizational Research Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref014","first-page":"135","article-title":"The competitive advantage of countries and the activities of transnational corporations","volume":"1","author":"Dunning","year":"1992","journal-title":"Transnational Corporations"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1116","article-title":"National competitiveness and Porter\u2019s diamond model: the role of MNE penetration and governance quality","volume":"6","author":"Fainshmidt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1442","article-title":"What is digital transformation? Core tensions facing established companies on the global stage","volume":"12","author":"Furr","year":"2022","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.technovation.2021.102396","article-title":"The role of knowledge creation, absorption and acquisition in determining national competitive advantage","volume":"112","author":"Ge","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technovation"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref018","unstructured":"Gestrin, M.V. and Staudt, J. (2018), \u201cThe digital economy, multinational enterprises and international investment policy\u201d, OECD, Paris, available at:Link to a PDF of the cited article. (accessed30 April 2025)."},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref019","volume-title":"Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques","author":"Han","year":"2012","edition":"3rd ed"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-5805.2012.01042.x","article-title":"Knowledge seeking and outward FDI of emerging market firms: the moderating effect of inward FDI","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref021","first-page":"649","article-title":"Commoditized digital processes and business community platforms: new opportunities and challenges for digital business strategies","volume":"37","author":"Markus","year":"2013","journal-title":"MIS Quarterly"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1057\/s41267-023-00618-x","article-title":"International business in the digital age: global strategies in a world of national institutions","volume":"54","author":"Meyer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of International Business Studies"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026041601114656400_ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6520.2008.00255.x","article-title":"The role of government policy on entrepreneurial activity: productive, unproductive, or destructive?","volume":"32","author":"Minniti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/S0969-5931(98)00002-X","article-title":"A generalized double diamond approach to the global competitiveness of Korea and Singapore","volume":"7","author":"Moon","year":"1998","journal-title":"International Business Review"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref025","unstructured":"National Institute of Standards and Technology\n           (2025), \u201cWhat are outliers in the data?\u201d, NIST\/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, available at:Link to the cited article. (accessed27 May 2025)."},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511808678","volume-title":"Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance","author":"North","year":"1990"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-11336-1","volume-title":"Competitive Advantage of Nations","author":"Porter","year":"1990"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1177\/089124240001400105","article-title":"Location, competition, and economic development: local clusters in a global economy","volume":"14","author":"Porter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Economic Development Quarterly"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref029","first-page":"17","article-title":"The double diamond model of international competitiveness: the Canadian experience","volume":"33","author":"Rugman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Management International Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-011-0270-5","article-title":"The regional and global competitiveness of multinational firms","volume":"40","author":"Rugman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref031","first-page":"105","article-title":"The competitive advantage of nations: is Porter\u2019s diamond framework a new theory that explains the international competitiveness of countries?","volume":"14","author":"Smit","year":"2010","journal-title":"Southern African Business Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041601114656400_ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.2008.31193230","article-title":"The impact of multinational enterprise strategy on indigenous enterprises: horizontal spillovers and crowding out in developing countries","volume":"33","author":"Spencer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Academy of Management Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1336","article-title":"Platforms without borders? The international strategies of digital platform firms","volume":"11","author":"Stallkamp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1364","article-title":"Upgrading strategies for the digital economy","volume":"11","author":"Sturgeon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref035","volume-title":"The Sharing Economy: The End of Employment and the Rise of Crowd-Based Capitalism","author":"Sundararajan","year":"2016"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1002\/gsj.1393","article-title":"Building the algorithm commons: who discovered the algorithms that underpin computing in the modern enterprise?","volume":"11","author":"Thompson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Global Strategy Journal"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.1100.0318","article-title":"Research commentary-digital infrastructures: the missing IS research agenda","volume":"21","author":"Tilson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Information Systems Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041601114656400_ref038","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2158244020988286","article-title":"Using Porter\u2019s diamond model to assess the competitiveness of Taiwan\u2019s solar photovoltaic industry","volume":"11","author":"Tsai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sage Open"},{"key":"2026041601114656400_ref039","volume-title":"Exploratory Data Analysis","author":"Tukey","year":"1977"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.5465\/amp.2020.0015","article-title":"The dark side of digital globalization","volume":"35","author":"Verbeke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Academy of Management Perspectives"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124115626179","article-title":"Analyzing relationships of necessity not just in kind but also in degree: complementing fsQCA with NCA","volume":"47","author":"Vis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sociological Methods and Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026041601114656400_ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.38.3.595","article-title":"The new institutional economics: taking stock, looking ahead","volume":"38","author":"Williamson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041601114656400_ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1108\/CR-11-2012-0027","article-title":"The competitive advantage of nations 20 years later: the cases of Sweden, South Korea, and the U.S.A","volume":"24","author":"Wilson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Competitiveness Review"}],"container-title":["Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/cr\/article-pdf\/36\/3\/498\/9958677\/cr-05-2025-0160en.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/cr\/article-pdf\/36\/3\/498\/9958677\/cr-05-2025-0160en.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T05:11:59Z","timestamp":1776316319000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/cr\/article\/36\/3\/498\/1269612\/National-competitive-advantage-in-the-digital-age"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/cr-05-2025-0160","relation":{},"ISSN":["1059-5422","2051-3143"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1059-5422","type":"print"},{"value":"2051-3143","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]}}}