{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T09:31:32Z","timestamp":1777368692575,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Emerald","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]],"date-time":"2024-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705363200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.emerald.com\/insight\/site-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["RBF"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,2]]},"abstract":"Purpose<\/jats:title>This work uses survey data from the Portuguese Securities Market Commission (Comiss\u00e3o de Mercado de Valores Mobili\u00e1rios \u2013 CMVM) to examine financial literacy and literacy bias. The main objective of this study is to shed light on this issue by identifying the individual characteristics that are associated with financial literacy, namely overconfidence and underconfidence, which in turn might help explain individuals' financial decisions. The study distinguishes two groups, i.e. students and nonstudents, and considers several characteristics that are usually employed in this stream of research.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Design\/methodology\/approach<\/jats:title>The data are based on a survey conducted by a partnership between the CMVM and a consortium of Portuguese universities. This paper has a three-fold aim. First, it studies the main individual features associated with objective financial literacy. Second, it analyzes the relationship between those variables and the bias between self-perceived and objective literacy, distinguishing overconfidence and underconfidence. Third, and most originally, this framework was also used to examine the differences between students and nonstudents. Those aims are pursued using cross-sectional ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions, except for the study of the literacy bias, for which the authors use an ordered probit.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Findings<\/jats:title>Literacy is higher in individuals of the male gender who are older, have higher incomes, live in metropolitan areas, are highly educated, have a field of study related to finance and have high self-perceived literacy. Younger people are more overconfident. Unconditionally, women are less overconfident than men, but conditionally, they overestimate their knowledge. People holding securities and with a field of study related to finance are more overconfident. The gender effect is mainly driven by students, and the impact of a field of study and of holding securities on overconfidence decreases and increases, respectively, for students. The results highlight the importance of financial education.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Research limitations\/implications<\/jats:title>Due to the way that the questionnaire was made available, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative of the Portuguese general population, or, for that matter, representative of the typical Portuguese retail investors or households. Also, there is no guarantee that the same individual did not answer the questionnaire more than once, although this is highly improbable. The link to the online questionnaire was only transmitted within e-mail databases owned by the CMVM and Portuguese universities, so the authors cannot guarantee its unbiasedness.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Practical implications<\/jats:title>The authors' results may help the National Plan for Financial Education (the acronym in Portuguese is PNFF) fine-tune the required actions towards different target groups and, most importantly, highlight that different groups may require different approaches aiming to narrow the gap between objective and perceived literacy. The first step should be creating procedures to provide feedback on the objective and perceived literacy of those who enroll in financial formation programs.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Social implications<\/jats:title>The study distinguishes two groups, students and nonstudents, providing additional insights that might guide policymakers on how to structure financial education to enhance individual financial behavior. This is especially important in a country such as Portugal which has the lowest objective financial literacy in the Eurozone.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Originality\/value<\/jats:title>This study contributes to the financial literacy literature, in particular to the stream of research that focuses on psychological biases, by shedding light on the factors associated with both individual overconfidence and underconfidence. Differentiating between students and nonstudents provides additional insights, which might guide policymakers on how to structure financial education to enhance individual financial behavior.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1108\/rbf-01-2023-0023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,12]],"date-time":"2024-01-12T06:16:52Z","timestamp":1705040212000},"page":"620-642","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Financial literacy bias: a\u00a0comparison between students and nonstudents"],"prefix":"10.1108","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1743-6869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helder","family":"Sebasti\u00e3o","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5687-3818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7903-0039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2247-7101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Godinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"140","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"key2024070114142482000_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1086\/314317","article-title":"Knowledge calibration what consumers know and what they think they know","volume":"27","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Consumer Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2024070114142482000_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfineco.2017.07.008","article-title":"Precautionary savings, retirement planning and misperceptions of financial literacy","volume":"126","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Financial Economics"},{"key":"key2024070114142482000_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.frl.2022.103582","article-title":"Examining the relationship between financial literacy and demographic factors and the overconfidence of Saudi investors","volume":"52","year":"2023","journal-title":"Finance Research Letters"},{"key":"key2024070114142482000_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joep.2020.102306","article-title":"Impact of inflated perceptions of financial literacy on financial decision making","volume":"80","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Psychology"},{"key":"key2024070114142482000_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econlet.2016.05.033","article-title":"Gender differences in financial risk taking: the role of financial literacy and risk tolerance","volume":"145","year":"2016","journal-title":"Economic Letters"},{"issue":"1","key":"key2024070114142482000_ref006","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1162\/003355301556400","article-title":"Boys will be boys: gender, overconfidence, and common stock investment","volume":"116","year":"2001","journal-title":"The Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"key2024070114142482000_ref007","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbankfin.2018.05.004","article-title":"Subjective financial literacy and retail investors' behavior","volume":"92","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Banking and Finance"},{"issue":"2","key":"key2024070114142482000_ref008","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1111\/joca.12121","article-title":"How financially literate are women? 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