{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T10:53:25Z","timestamp":1784372005686,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":226,"publisher":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,1]],"date-time":"2019-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1546300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/Xplorehelp\/downloads\/license-information\/OAPA.html"}],"funder":[{"name":"Wallenberg AI. Autonomous Systems and Software Program","award":["(WASP)\/NTU M4082187 (4080)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["(WASP)\/NTU M4082187 (4080)"]}]},{"name":"Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) Tier 1","award":["2017-T1-002-007 RG122\/17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-T1-002-007 RG122\/17"]}]},{"name":"MOE Tier 2","award":["MOE2014-T2-2-015 ARC4\/15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOE2014-T2-2-015 ARC4\/15"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001381","name":"National Research Foundation Singapore","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF2015-NRF-ISF001-2277"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF2015-NRF-ISF001-2277"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001381","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001447","name":"Energy Market Authority of Singapore","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF2017EWT-EP003-041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF2017EWT-EP003-041"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001447","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Singapore EMA Project","award":["NRF2017EWT-EP003-023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF2017EWT-EP003-023"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017R1A2B2003953"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017R1A2B2003953"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IEEE Access"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019]]},"DOI":"10.1109\/access.2019.2896108","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,30]],"date-time":"2019-01-30T20:41:03Z","timestamp":1548880863000},"page":"22328-22370","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":830,"title":["A Survey on Consensus Mechanisms and Mining Strategy Management in Blockchain Networks"],"prefix":"10.1109","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Wenbo","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dinh Thai","family":"Hoang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peizhao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zehui","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dusit","family":"Niyato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ping","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yonggang","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7711-8072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dong In","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"263","reference":[{"key":"ref170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCBT.2018.00006"},{"key":"ref172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978389"},{"key":"ref171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70972-7_22"},{"key":"ref174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2018.000-5"},{"key":"ref173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/322186.322188"},{"key":"ref176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2017.45"},{"key":"ref175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3243734.3243853"},{"key":"ref178","author":"churyumov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Byteball A decentralized system for storage and transfer of value"},{"key":"ref177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-47854-7_33","article-title":"Inclusive block chain protocols","author":"lewenberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Financial Cryptography and Data Security"},{"key":"ref168","article-title":"Non-interactive proofs of proof-of-work","author":"kiayias","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref169","first-page":"61","article-title":"Proofs of proofs of work with sublinear complexity","author":"kiayias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Financial Cryptograph Data Secur"},{"key":"ref39","author":"gencer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Decentralization in Bitcoin and Ethereum Networks"},{"key":"ref38","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ethereum Wire Protocol v 5"},{"key":"ref33","author":"hopwood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Zcash Protocol Specification"},{"key":"ref32","author":"mackenzie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Improving Obfuscation in the CryptoNote Protocol"},{"key":"ref31","first-page":"281","article-title":"The Bitcoin backbone protocol: Analysis and applications","author":"garay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc 14th Annu Int Conf Theory Appl Cryptogr Techn (EUROCRYPT)"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CTTE.2017.8260929"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45748-8_5","article-title":"Kademlia: A peer-to-peer information system based on the XOR metric","author":"maymounkov","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc of the 1st Int Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Syst"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2660267.2660379"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/P2P.2013.6688704"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-47854-7_32","article-title":"Secure high-rate transaction processing in bitcoin","author":"sompolinsky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc 18th Int Conf Financial Cryptogr Data Secur"},{"key":"ref181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3040224","article-title":"2017 global blockchain benchmarking study","author":"hileman","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref180","author":"popov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Equilibria in the Tangle"},{"key":"ref185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3140649.3140656"},{"key":"ref184","first-page":"181","article-title":"Blockstack: A global naming and storage system secured by blockchains","author":"ali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc of USENIX Annual Technical Conf (USENIX)"},{"key":"ref183","first-page":"1","article-title":"An empirical study of namecoin and lessons for decentralized namespace design","author":"kalodner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc of Workshop on Economics of Inf Security"},{"key":"ref182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70278-0_14","article-title":"An analysis of Bitcoin OP_RETURN metadata","author":"bartoletti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Financial Cryptograph Data Secur"},{"key":"ref189","author":"goyal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Secure incentivization for decentralized content delivery"},{"key":"ref188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2018.8422547"},{"key":"ref187","author":"mcconaghy","year":"2016","journal-title":"BigchainDB A Scalable Blockchain Database(DRAFT)"},{"key":"ref186","article-title":"Blockchain for large-scale Internet of Things data storage and protection","author":"li","year":"0","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Services Comput"},{"key":"ref28","author":"buterin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ethereum A next-generation smart contract and decentralized application platform"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-53890-6_30"},{"key":"ref179","author":"li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Scaling nakamoto consensus to thousands of transactions per second"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2017.2748133"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2842460"},{"key":"ref22","author":"ghosh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Distributed Systems An Algorithmic Approach"},{"key":"ref21","first-page":"164","article-title":"A survey of attacks on Ethereum smart contracts SoK","author":"atzei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc 6th Int Conf IV"},{"key":"ref24","article-title":"SPECTRE: A fast and scalable cryptocurrency protocol","author":"sompolinsky","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref23","article-title":"On trees, chains and fast transactions in the blockchain","author":"kiayias","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref26","first-page":"1","article-title":"Architecture of the hyperledger blockchain fabric","author":"cachin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Workshop on Distributed Cryptocurrencies and Consensus Ledgers (DCCL)"},{"key":"ref25","author":"popov","year":"2018","journal-title":"The tangle version 1 4 3"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511800481"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2229012.2229022"},{"key":"ref154","first-page":"13:1","article-title":"Bitcoin meets strong consistency","author":"decker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc 17th Int Conf Distrib Comput Netw (ICDCN)"},{"key":"ref153","first-page":"45","article-title":"Bitcoin-NG: A scalable blockchain protocol","author":"eyal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc USENIX Symp Netw Syst Design Implem (NSDI)"},{"key":"ref156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/32.481515"},{"key":"ref155","first-page":"39:1","article-title":"Hybrid consensus: Efficient consensus in the permissionless model","volume":"91","author":"pass","year":"2017","journal-title":"31st Intl Symp on Distributed Computing (DISC)"},{"key":"ref150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67816-0_17","article-title":"Securing proof-of-stake blockchain protocols","author":"li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int Workshops Data Privacy Manage Cryptocurrencies Blockchain Technol (ESORICS)"},{"key":"ref152","article-title":"It will cost you nothing to kill a proof-of-stake crypto-currency","author":"houy","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref151","author":"poelstra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Distributed Consensus from Proof of Stake is Impossible"},{"key":"ref146","author":"ren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proof of Stake Velocity Building the Social Currency of the Digital Age"},{"key":"ref147","article-title":"Snow white: Provably secure proofs of stake","author":"daian","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref148","first-page":"66","article-title":"Ouroboros praos: An adaptively-secure, semi-synchronous proof-of-stake blockchain","author":"david","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Theory Appl Cryptograph Techn (EUROCRYPT)"},{"key":"ref149","author":"buterin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Casper the Friendly Finality Gadget"},{"key":"ref59","author":"rosenfeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Analysis of bitcoin pooled mining reward systems"},{"key":"ref58","first-page":"1","article-title":"The economics of Bitcoin mining, or Bitcoin in the presence of adversaries","author":"kroll","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc of Workshop on Economics of Inf Security"},{"key":"ref57","article-title":"Consensus methods in blockchain systems","author":"debus","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2812301"},{"key":"ref55","author":"ersoy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transaction propagation on permissionless blockchains Incentive and routing mechanisms"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-45472-5_28"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2014.49"},{"key":"ref52","article-title":"Bitcoin pricing, adoption, and usage: Theory and evidence","author":"athey","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref40","author":"antonopoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mastering Bitcoin Unlocking Digital Cryptocurrencies"},{"key":"ref167","article-title":"Enabling blockchain innovations with pegged sidechains","author":"back","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref166","author":"okupski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bitcoin developer reference"},{"key":"ref165","author":"lind","year":"2017","journal-title":"Teechain A secure asynchronous blockchain payment network"},{"key":"ref164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3133956.3134093"},{"key":"ref163","first-page":"14","article-title":"The bitcoin lightning network: Scalable off-chain instant payments","volume":"9","author":"poon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Lightning Labs"},{"key":"ref162","article-title":"Segregated witness (consensus layer)","author":"lombrozo","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3132747.3132757"},{"key":"ref160","author":"larimer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Delegated Proof-of-Stake (DPOS)"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2015.14"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2535718"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2016.55"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978309"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2017.186"},{"key":"ref159","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proof of authority chains"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2779263"},{"key":"ref49","first-page":"485","article-title":"XFT: Practical fault tolerance beyond crashes","author":"liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc USENIX Symp Oper Syst Design Implementation"},{"key":"ref157","first-page":"279","article-title":"Enhancing bitcoin security and performance with strong consistency via collective signing","author":"kogias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc 25th USENIX Secur Symp (USENIX Secur )"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MITP.2017.3051335"},{"key":"ref158","author":"kwon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tendermint Consensus without Mining"},{"key":"ref46","article-title":"Anonymous byzantine consensus from moderately-hard puzzles: A model for bitcoin","author":"miller","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref45","first-page":"1:1","article-title":"Blockchain consensus protocols in the wild (keynote talk)","volume":"91","author":"cachin","year":"2017","journal-title":"31st Intl Symp on Distributed Computing (DISC)"},{"key":"ref48","author":"schwartz","year":"2014","journal-title":"The Ripple protocol consensus algorithm"},{"key":"ref47","author":"sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Solving Byzantine Problems in Synchronized Systems Using Bitcoin"},{"key":"ref42","article-title":"Bitcoin network shaken by blockchain fork","volume":"12","author":"buterin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bitcoin Mag"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45748-8_24","article-title":"The Sybil attack","author":"douceur","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc of the 1st Int Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Syst"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxh145"},{"key":"ref43","first-page":"524","article-title":"Secure and efficient asynchronous broadcast protocols","author":"cachin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc 21st Annu Int Cryptol Conf (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3007788.3007790"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2695533.2695545"},{"key":"ref71","year":"2017","journal-title":"Filecoin A Decentralized Storage Network"},{"key":"ref70","first-page":"357","article-title":"Ouroboros: A provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol","author":"kiayias","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc 37th Annu Int Cryptol Conf (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2810103.2813621"},{"key":"ref77","first-page":"142","article-title":"Cryptocurrencies without proof of work","author":"bentov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf DATE"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0000(83)90042-9"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5195\/LEDGER.2017.48"},{"key":"ref78","article-title":"Rational proofs of space-time","author":"moran","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref79","article-title":"Proofs of useful work","author":"ball","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref60","article-title":"A proof-of-trust consensus protocol for enhancing accountability in crowdsourcing services","author":"zou","year":"0","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Services Comput"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/DSN.2018.00018"},{"key":"ref61","article-title":"Yet another visit to Paxos","author":"cachin","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref63","first-page":"79","article-title":"KopperCoin&#x2014;A distributed file storage with financial incentives","author":"kopp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Inf Secur Pract Exper"},{"key":"ref64","first-page":"258","article-title":"Proofs of work and bread pudding protocols (extended abstract)","author":"jakobsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc Secure Inf Netw Commun Multimedia Secur IFIP TC6\/TC11 Joint Workshop Conf Commun Multimedia Secur (CMS)"},{"key":"ref65","article-title":"Exposing computationally-challenged Byzantine impostors","author":"aspnes","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70500-2_17","article-title":"Moderately hard functions: Definition, instantiations, and applications","author":"alwen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc 15th Int Conf Theory Cryptogr I"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SFFCS.1999.814584"},{"key":"ref68","first-page":"90","article-title":"SNARKs for C: Verifying program executions succinctly and in zero knowledge","author":"ben-sasson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc 33rd Annu Cryptol Conf (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref69","author":"king","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ppcoin Peer-to-peer Crypto-currency with Proof-of-stake"},{"key":"ref197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2010.5464224"},{"key":"ref198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996835"},{"key":"ref199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MVT.2017.2740458"},{"key":"ref193","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCC.2018.1081060"},{"key":"ref194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CCGRID.2017.8"},{"key":"ref195","first-page":"547","article-title":"Unbounded HIBE and attribute-based encryption","author":"lewko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Theory Appl Cryptograph Techn (EUROCRYPT)"},{"key":"ref196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2016.7562112"},{"key":"ref95","first-page":"1427","article-title":"REM: Resource-efficient mining for blockchains","author":"zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc 26th USENIX Security Symp (USENIX Security)"},{"key":"ref94","article-title":"A TorPath to TorCoin: Proof-of-bandwidth altcoins for compensating relays","author":"ghosh","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996830"},{"key":"ref93","author":"rizun","year":"2015","journal-title":"A transaction fee market exists without a block size limit"},{"key":"ref191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1700364"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2018.2820009"},{"key":"ref192","author":"nikouei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Real-time index authentication for event-oriented surveillance video query using blockchain"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5195\/LEDGER.2016.40"},{"key":"ref90","first-page":"106","article-title":"On scaling decentralized blockchains","author":"croman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Int Workshops Financial Cryptogr Data Secur FC BITCOIN VOTING WAHC"},{"key":"ref98","author":"king","year":"2013","journal-title":"Primecoin Cryptocurrency with Prime Number Proof-of-work"},{"key":"ref99","author":"andersen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cunningham Chain From Mathworld&#x2014;A Wolfram Web Resource"},{"key":"ref96","article-title":"SpaceMint: A cryptocurrency based on proofs of space","author":"park","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref97","first-page":"517","article-title":"Designing proof of human-work puzzles for cryptocurrency and beyond","author":"blocki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc 14th Int Conf Theory Cryptogr"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-015-0347-x"},{"key":"ref81","article-title":"Proofs of work for blockchain protocols","author":"garay","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref84","first-page":"291","article-title":"The Bitcoin backbone protocol with chains of variable difficulty","author":"garay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int'l Cryptology Conf (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref83","first-page":"168","article-title":"What&#x2019;s so different about blockchain?&#x2014;Blockchain is a probabilistic state machine","author":"saito","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc IEEE 36th Int Conf Distrib Comput Syst Workshops (ICDCSW)"},{"key":"ref80","article-title":"Cryptographic hash functions: Recent design trends and security notions","author":"al-kuwari","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref89","first-page":"643","article-title":"Analysis of the blockchain protocol in asynchronous networks","author":"pass","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Theory Appl Cryptographic Techn"},{"key":"ref85","article-title":"A scalable proof-of-stake blockchain in the open setting (or, how to mimic Nakamoto&#x2019;s design via proof-of-stake)","author":"fan","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2017.3571056"},{"key":"ref87","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref88","article-title":"Speed-security tradeoffs in blockchain protocols","author":"kiayias","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2017.2740569"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3055399.3055466"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/NCA.2017.8171383"},{"key":"ref209","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2017.2709784"},{"key":"ref203","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1700117"},{"key":"ref204","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2757955"},{"key":"ref201","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2836144"},{"key":"ref202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2871642"},{"key":"ref207","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2805837"},{"key":"ref208","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2016.2616861"},{"key":"ref205","author":"li","year":"0","journal-title":"CrowdBC A Blockchain-based Decentralized Framework for Crowdsourcing"},{"key":"ref206","first-page":"1","article-title":"Competitive data trading in Wireless-Powered Internet of Things (IoT) crowdsensing systems with blockchain","author":"feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc IEEE Int Conf Commun Syst"},{"key":"ref211","article-title":"A secure charging scheme for electric vehicles with smart communities in energy blockchain","author":"su","year":"0","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"key":"ref210","first-page":"3690","article-title":"Consortium blockchain for secure energy trading in industrial Internet of Things","volume":"14","author":"li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Ind Informat"},{"key":"ref212","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2017.1500371WC"},{"key":"ref213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2018.8422743"},{"key":"ref214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1701095"},{"key":"ref215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2866365"},{"key":"ref216","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCNC.2018.8390265"},{"key":"ref217","author":"tsankov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Securify Practical security analysis of smart contracts"},{"key":"ref218","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CTS.2016.0082"},{"key":"ref219","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCN.2017.8038518"},{"key":"ref220","author":"bruce","year":"2017","journal-title":"The Mini-Blockchain Scheme Rev 3"},{"key":"ref222","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2844341"},{"key":"ref221","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2016.2550530"},{"key":"ref226","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IC2E.2018.00069"},{"key":"ref225","author":"zyskind","year":"2015","journal-title":"Enigma Decentralized computation platform with guaranteed privacy"},{"key":"ref224","author":"kone?n\u00fd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Federated optimization distributed machine learning for on-device intelligence"},{"key":"ref223","author":"kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"On-device federated learning via blockchain and its latency analysis"},{"key":"ref127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2018.8422632"},{"key":"ref126","article-title":"Cloud\/fog computing resource management and pricing for blockchain networks","author":"xiong","year":"0","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"key":"ref125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5195\/LEDGER.2017.96"},{"key":"ref124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSC.2018.2876846"},{"key":"ref129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/EuroSP.2016.32"},{"key":"ref128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5195\/LEDGER.2016.13"},{"key":"ref130","article-title":"The impact of transaction fees on bitcoin mining strategies","author":"carlsten","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978341"},{"key":"ref134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peva.2016.07.001"},{"key":"ref131","first-page":"515","article-title":"Optimal selfish mining strategies in bitcoin","author":"sapirshtein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Financial Cryptogr Data Secur 20th Int Conf Revised Sel Papers"},{"key":"ref132","author":"sompolinsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bitcoin&#x2019;s security model revisited"},{"key":"ref136","author":"han","year":"2012","journal-title":"Game Theory in Wireless and Communication Networks Theory Models and Applications"},{"key":"ref135","author":"beccuti","year":"2017","journal-title":"The bitcoin mining game On the optimality of honesty in proof-of-work consensus mechanism"},{"key":"ref138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CSF.2015.34"},{"key":"ref137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CCGRID.2017.111"},{"key":"ref139","first-page":"89","article-title":"The miner&#x2019;s dilemma","author":"eyal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc IEEE Symp Secur Privacy"},{"key":"ref140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2016.2623588"},{"key":"ref141","first-page":"167","article-title":"Yet another note on block withholding attack on Bitcoin mining pools","author":"bag","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc 19th Int Conf Inf Secur"},{"key":"ref142","year":"2017","journal-title":"Slushpool"},{"key":"ref143","first-page":"889","article-title":"A provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol","author":"kiayias","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref144","first-page":"282","article-title":"On security analysis of proof-of-elapsed-time (PoET)","author":"chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc 19th Int Symp Stabilization Saf Secur Distrib Syst"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2017.2781227"},{"key":"ref145","article-title":"Slimcoin: A peer-to-peer crypto-currency with proof-of-burn","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref1","author":"nakamoto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bitcoin A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System"},{"key":"ref109","volume":"151","author":"wood","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ethereum A Secure Decentralised Generalised Transaction Ledger"},{"key":"ref108","first-page":"288","article-title":"A generalized birthday problem","author":"wagner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc Int'l Cryptology Conf (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref107","article-title":"Sia: Simple decentralized storage","author":"vorick","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref106","article-title":"Storj a peer-to-peer cloud storage network","author":"wilkinson","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1315245.1315317"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2014.37"},{"key":"ref103","first-page":"10","author":"johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intel Software Guard Extensions EPID Provisioning and Attestation Services"},{"key":"ref102","first-page":"186","article-title":"How to prove yourself: Practical solutions to identification and signature problems","author":"fiat","year":"1986","journal-title":"Proc Conf Theory Appl Cryptograph Techn (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref111","first-page":"585","article-title":"Proofs of space","author":"dziembowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc 35th Annu Cryptol Conf (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-39200-9_18"},{"key":"ref110","first-page":"182","article-title":"(Short paper) Piecework: Generalized outsourcing control for proofs of work","author":"daian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int Workshops WAHC BITCOIN VOTING WTSC TA Financial Cryptogr Data Secur FC"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CSNET.2017.8242003"},{"key":"ref11","first-page":"369","article-title":"A digital signature based on a conventional encryption function","author":"merkle","year":"1987","journal-title":"Proc Conf Theory Appl Cryptograph Techn (CRYPTO)"},{"key":"ref12","first-page":"1","author":"mohr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Survey of Zero-Knowledge Proofs with Applications to Cryptography"},{"key":"ref13","article-title":"Zero-knowledge twenty years after its invention","author":"goldreich","year":"2002"},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"1","author":"raynal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Communication and Agreement Abstractions for Fault-tolerant Asynchronous Distributed Systems"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/98163.98167"},{"key":"ref16","author":"bano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Consensus in the Age of Blockchains"},{"key":"ref118","author":"abraham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Solida A blockchain protocol based on reconfigurable Byzantine consensus"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/571637.571640"},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511794216"},{"key":"ref18","first-page":"112","article-title":"The quest for scalable blockchain fabric: Proof-of-work vs. BFT replication","author":"vukoli?","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc Int Workshop Open Problems Netw Secur"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1504\/IJWGS.2018.095647"},{"key":"ref119","author":"stone","year":"2015","journal-title":"An examination of single-transaction blocks and their effect on network throughput and block size"},{"key":"ref114","author":"courtois","year":"2014","journal-title":"On The Longest Chain Rule and Programmed Self-Destruction of Crypto Currencies"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-53890-6_24"},{"key":"ref116","first-page":"63","article-title":"When Bitcoin mining pools run dry","author":"laszka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Financial Cryptogr Data Secur (FC) Int Workshops BITCOIN WAHC Wearable"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/popets-2017-0028"},{"key":"ref120","first-page":"3","article-title":"Stressing out: Bitcoin &#x2018;stress testing","author":"baqer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Int Workshops Financial Cryptogr Data Secur FC BITCOIN VOTING WAHC"},{"key":"ref121","author":"pappalardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Blockchain inefficiency in the Bitcoin peers network"},{"key":"ref122","first-page":"19","article-title":"Trends, tips, tolls: A longitudinal study of Bitcoin transaction fees","author":"m\u00f6ser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Financial Cryptogr Data Secur (FC) Int Workshops BITCOIN WAHC Wearable"},{"key":"ref123","article-title":"The economics of Bitcoin transaction fees","author":"houy","year":"2014"}],"container-title":["IEEE Access"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/xplorestaging.ieee.org\/ielx7\/6287639\/8600701\/08629877.pdf?arnumber=8629877","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T07:34:58Z","timestamp":1643268898000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/8629877\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019]]},"references-count":226,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/access.2019.2896108","relation":{},"ISSN":["2169-3536"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2169-3536","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019]]}}}