{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T16:13:00Z","timestamp":1784736780725,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":159,"publisher":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]],"date-time":"2025-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/legalcode"}],"funder":[{"name":"Foundational Digital Capabilities Research (FDCR) Program of the Department of Science, Technology and Innovation (DSTI), South Africa"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100016962","name":"South African Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) through its FDCR Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100016962","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IEEE Access"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"DOI":"10.1109\/access.2025.3626781","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T18:03:45Z","timestamp":1761847425000},"page":"187799-187842","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Toward Energy Efficiency in Radio Access Networks for 5G and Beyond: A Review of the State of the Art, Comparison of Power Consumption for Popular Open 5G RANs, and Techno-Economic Cost Impact"],"prefix":"10.1109","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1312-0725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rozeena","family":"Ebrahim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7694-3513","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albert A.","family":"Lysko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris R.","family":"Burger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5746-0720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mla","family":"Vilakazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moshe T.","family":"Masonta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence","family":"Banda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"263","reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Mobile Traffic Q1","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref2","volume-title":"Mobile Data Traffic Forecast","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"Energy Efficiency of Radio Units in Next-Generation Open Radio Access Networks","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2016.2569483"},{"key":"ref5","volume-title":"Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast Update","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patter.2022.100576"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/OJCOMS.2023.3257889"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7149643"},{"key":"ref9","volume-title":"Online Tutorial: Energy Efficiency of Cellular Networks","author":"Blume","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref10","volume-title":"Global Markets for 5G Technologies","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref11","volume-title":"5G White Paper","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2014.2328098"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/NRSC.2018.8354395"},{"key":"ref14","volume-title":"A Holistic Approach to Address RAN Energy Efficiency","author":"Hultell","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2021.01.012"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2731420"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2013.10.013"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref18","first-page":"2","article-title":"A review of energy efficiency in telecommunication networks","volume":"2","author":"Koutitas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Telfor J."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2021-Spring51267.2021.9448654"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2015.7414181"},{"key":"ref21","volume-title":"Green Future Networks: Network Energy Efficiency","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2016.7511218"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2017.8288125"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC42927.2021.9500323"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2021.04.025"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2022.3142532"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2944839"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3099067"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2021.3069993"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3120989"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2022.3221609"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/OJVT.2020.3044569"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3058776"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3234190"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloei.2021.11.004"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/en14175392"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3051557"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.98517"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.2100116"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2022.3199901"},{"key":"ref41","volume-title":"Future Technology Trends of Terrestrial International Mobile Telecommunications Systems Towards 2030 and Beyond","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2012.6364829"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM54140.2023.10436843"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11235-023-01037-x"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110312"},{"key":"ref46","article-title":"Energy efficiency of 5G radio access networks","author":"Peesapati","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref47","article-title":"Energy efficiency of radio units and its impact on RAN energy consumption","author":"Berglund","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143126"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3001180"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2013.032013.120494"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/EuCNC\/6GSummit58263.2023.10188307"},{"key":"ref52","volume-title":"Environmental Engineering (EE); Metrics and Measurement Method for Energy Efficiency of Wireless Access Network Equipment; Part 1: Power Consumption\u2014Static Measurement Method","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref53","volume-title":"Environmental Engineering (EE); Measurement Method for Energy Efficiency of Wireless Access Network Equipment Dynamic Energy Performance Measurement Method of 5G Base Station (BS)","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref54","volume-title":"Energy Efficiency in 3GPP Technologies","author":"Sultan","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref55","volume-title":"Technical Specification Group Services and System Aspects; Release 18 Description; Summary of Rel-18 Work Items (Release 18)","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref56","volume-title":"Environmental Engineering (EE): Study on Methods and Metrics to Evaluate Energy Efficiency for Future 5G Systems","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/AEEICB.2016.7538363"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2013.2260813"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2020.2999784"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-017-0924-1"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2780238"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781394187997"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3073325"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12041001"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1049\/ir:19990307"},{"key":"ref66","article-title":"Non-terrestrial network options for consumers","author":"Burger","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/m18-0850"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2021.108567"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4108\/icst.5gu.2014.257998"},{"key":"ref70","volume-title":"Amplifier Classes","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSYM.2008.4632941"},{"key":"ref72","volume-title":"Analogue to Digital Converter","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref73","first-page":"1","article-title":"How to use power scaling to maximize power savings in a SAR ADC system","volume":"2018","author":"Sosa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Analog Design J."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2016.2619343"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2016.2544604"},{"key":"ref76","volume-title":"Ericsson Launches Three-Sector Radio for Efficient Site Upgrades and Capacity Boost","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref77","article-title":"Green thinking beyond TCO consideration","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Stat"},{"key":"ref78","volume-title":"Press Release: Nokia Adds Liquid Cooling Technology to Latest AirScale Base Station Portfolio Outlining Commitment to Sustainability","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2022.3214436"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2991381"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2022.3149903"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1049\/ell2.12534"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2016.2549438"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ECOC.2014.6964023"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2013.6515050"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2022.3166393"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3102975"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2903901"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-019-02056-w"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2973648"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3236980"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2022.3150425"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2021.3108581"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3128513"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2019.2945951"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TGCN.2020.3045687"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2958640"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3108849"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2019.2942597"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2023.3263230"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TBC.2020.2968730"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2970750"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3064032"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3048436"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3035212"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TGCN.2020.3034638"},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2022.3157650"},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/AFRICON55910.2023.10293732"},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/AFRICON55910.2023.10293355"},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GCWkshp64532.2024.11100863"},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMSNETS59351.2024.10427350"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2980159.2980163"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-14325-5_42"},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPASS.2013.6557170"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3071649"},{"key":"ref116","volume-title":"Based on a Picture Taken From Ericsson\u2019s Slides at the Ericsson Stand at AfricaCom 2021","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref117","volume-title":"Principles of Corporate Finance","author":"Allen","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref118","volume-title":"5G NR: The Next Generation Wireless Access Technology","author":"Sauter","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref119","volume-title":"Understanding the Discount Rate Used in a Business Valuation","author":"Capital","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref120","volume-title":"The 5G Guide: A Reference for Operators","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref121","volume-title":"Green is Good for Business: Making the Financial Case in Telecoms","author":"Hatt","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref122","volume-title":"Going Green: Measuring the Energy Efficiency of Mobile Networks","author":"Kolta","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3205011"},{"key":"ref124","volume-title":"Making 5G a Reality for Africa","author":"Coetzee","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref125","volume-title":"Cost of Electricity by Country","author":"Review","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref126","volume-title":"Africa Market Report","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref127","volume-title":"Energy efficiency and sustainability in mobile communications networks","author":"Americas","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref128","volume-title":"5G advanced\u2014How will it impact the ran market?","author":"Today","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref129","volume-title":"5G Tsunami: Largest Capex Supercycle in Decades Unleashing Opportunity, Innovation","author":"Council","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref130","volume-title":"The Growing Imperative of Energy Optimization for Telco Networks","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.51594\/estj.v5i9.1569"},{"key":"ref132","volume-title":"7 Ways smart agriculture lowers food prices","author":"Amos","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref133","volume-title":"Communications Network Management Applying AI (Artificial Intelligence)\/ML (Machine Learning): Technological Trends Leading to Beyond 5G\/6G","author":"Murata Manufacturing Co","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref134","volume-title":"Breaking the Energy Curve: How to Improve Energy Performance in Mobile Networks","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref135","volume-title":"The Mobile Net Zero State of the Industry on Climate Action 2023","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref136","volume-title":"Unleashing the Power of 5G: Embracing the Next Generation of Connectivity","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref137","volume-title":"The Mobile Economy 2024","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref138","volume-title":"4 Reasons 4 Billion People Are Still Offline","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomp.2023.1327140"},{"key":"ref140","first-page":"1","article-title":"SDN-enabled infrastructure sharing in emerging markets: CapEx\/OpEx savings overview and quantification","volume-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun. Workshops (ICC Workshops)","author":"Aryal"},{"key":"ref141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2023.3334610"},{"key":"ref142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23919\/transcom.2023EBT0009"},{"key":"ref143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/EuCNC\/6GSummit60053.2024.10597119"},{"key":"ref144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3153046"},{"key":"ref145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3050742"},{"key":"ref146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3183989"},{"key":"ref147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/OJCOMS.2022.3146618"},{"key":"ref148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSC56524.2022.10009237"},{"key":"ref149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TGCN.2024.3431989"},{"key":"ref150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM54140.2023.10437043"},{"key":"ref151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.55708\/js0310002"},{"key":"ref152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2932777"},{"key":"ref153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CommNet63022.2024.10793350"},{"key":"ref154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2021.3137669"},{"key":"ref155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2020.101975"},{"key":"ref156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3127482"},{"key":"ref157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2017.1600301"},{"key":"ref158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SCAT.2013.7055083"},{"key":"ref159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.13052\/jmmc2246-137X.123"}],"container-title":["IEEE Access"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/xplorestaging.ieee.org\/ielx8\/6287639\/10820123\/11222674.pdf?arnumber=11222674","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T18:50:14Z","timestamp":1762800614000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/11222674\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":159,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/access.2025.3626781","relation":{},"ISSN":["2169-3536"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2169-3536","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}}}