{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T03:50:22Z","timestamp":1794023422872,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":228,"publisher":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/Xplorehelp\/downloads\/license-information\/IEEE.html"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006602","name":"Air Force Material Command","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FA8750-16-0301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA8750-16-0301"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006602","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"Global Research Lab Program of the National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2016K1A1A2912757"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2016K1A1A2912757"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"Global Research Lab Program of the National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2017R1A4A1015675"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2017R1A4A1015675"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020]]},"DOI":"10.1109\/comst.2020.2975999","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,2]],"date-time":"2020-03-02T20:51:41Z","timestamp":1583182301000},"page":"1977-2008","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":309,"title":["Exploring the Attack Surface of Blockchain: A Comprehensive Survey"],"prefix":"10.1109","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8762-4566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Saad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Spaulding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurent","family":"Njilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Kamhoua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8789-0610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sachin","family":"Shetty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5183-891X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"DaeHun","family":"Nyang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3227-2505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Mohaisen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"263","reference":[{"key":"ref170","first-page":"477","article-title":"Incentive compatibility of bitcoin mining pool reward functions","author":"schrijvers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Financ Cryptograph Data Security (FC)"},{"key":"ref172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2011.221"},{"key":"ref171","author":"rosenfeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Analysis of bitcoin pooled mining reward systems"},{"key":"ref174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2018.2860009"},{"key":"ref173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2015.2495213"},{"key":"ref176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCCN.2019.2914052"},{"key":"ref175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2019.23252"},{"key":"ref178","author":"li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gosig Scalable Byzantine Consensus on Adversarial Wide Area Network for Blockchains"},{"key":"ref177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23919\/WONS.2018.8311658"},{"key":"ref168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2016.2623588"},{"key":"ref169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-45871-7_11"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11851-2_5"},{"key":"ref38","author":"fleder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bitcoin Transaction Graph Analysis"},{"key":"ref33","author":"leelavimolsilp","year":"2018","journal-title":"On the preliminary investigation of selfish mining strategy with multiple selfish miners"},{"key":"ref32","author":"bastiaan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Preventing the 51%-attack a stochastic analysis of two phase proof of work in bitcoin"},{"key":"ref31","first-page":"236","article-title":"Low-resource eclipse attacks on Ethereum’s peer-to-peer network","volume":"2018","author":"marcus","year":"2018","journal-title":"IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2017.29"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/RTEICT.2017.8256979"},{"key":"ref36","first-page":"1","article-title":"Security concerns and issues for bitcoin","author":"vyas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc Nat Conf Workshop Bioinf Comput Biol NCWBCB"},{"key":"ref35","first-page":"45","article-title":"Bitcoin-NG: A scalable blockchain protocol","author":"eyal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc USENIX Symp Netw Syst Design Implem (NSDI)"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3196494.3201584"},{"key":"ref181","author":"williams","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bitcoin banned countries"},{"key":"ref180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13600834.2012.744225"},{"key":"ref185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/eCrime47957.2019.9037576"},{"key":"ref184","author":"li","year":"2018","journal-title":"What Is Cryptojacking?"},{"key":"ref183","author":"nadeau","year":"2018","journal-title":"What Is Cryptojacking? How to Prevent Detect and Recover From It"},{"key":"ref182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2732196"},{"key":"ref189","author":"condliffe","year":"2018","journal-title":"A Cryptojacking Attack Hit Thousands of Websites Including Government Ones"},{"key":"ref188","author":"community","year":"2018","journal-title":"Monero Home"},{"key":"ref187","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earn More From Your Visitors"},{"key":"ref186","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coinhive"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/P2P.2013.6688704"},{"key":"ref27","first-page":"89","article-title":"The miner’s dilemma","author":"eyal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc IEEE Symp Secur Privacy (Oakland)"},{"key":"ref179","article-title":"Are cryptocurrencies criminals best friends? Examining the co-evolution of bitcoin and darknet markets","author":"janze","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Amer Conf Inf Syst (AMCIS)"},{"key":"ref29","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bitcoin developer guide"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2016.7562112"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HealthCom.2016.7749510"},{"key":"ref21","article-title":"Blockchain for healthcare records: A data perspective","volume":"6","author":"zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"PeerJ PrePrints"},{"key":"ref24","author":"back","year":"2014","journal-title":"Enabling blockchain innovations with pegged sidechains"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SPW.2015.27"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2017.23415"},{"key":"ref25","author":"nakamoto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bitcoin A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System"},{"key":"ref50","author":"memoria","year":"2017","journal-title":"700 million stuck in 115 000 unconfirmed bitcoin transactions"},{"key":"ref51","author":"mcmillan","year":"2014","journal-title":"The Inside Story of Mt Gox Bitcoin's 460 Million Disaster"},{"key":"ref154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CCGRID.2017.111"},{"key":"ref153","author":"mempool","year":"2018","journal-title":"Report Bitcoin (BTC) Mempool Shows Backlogged Transactions Increased Fees If So?"},{"key":"ref156","author":"exchange","year":"2019","journal-title":"What Is a Finney Attack?"},{"key":"ref155","year":"2017","journal-title":"Finney's attack"},{"key":"ref150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCS.2017.213"},{"key":"ref152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751476"},{"key":"ref151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44774-1_5"},{"key":"ref146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCS.2019.00119"},{"key":"ref147","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bitnodes - Global Bitcoin Nodes Distribution"},{"key":"ref148","author":"greenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hacker redirects traffic from 19 internet providers to steal bitcoins"},{"key":"ref149","first-page":"129","article-title":"Eclipse attacks on bitcoin’s peer-to-peer network","author":"heilman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc Usenix Security Symp"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2842460"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3052973.3052980"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3282278.3282282"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2019.04.003"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4337\/9781784717766.00019"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2382196.2382292"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-018-0422-4"},{"key":"ref52","author":"community","year":"2017","journal-title":"51% attack"},{"key":"ref40","first-page":"24","article-title":"Transaction verification model over double spending for peer-to-peer digital currency transactions based on blockchain architecture","volume":"163","author":"rubasinghe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Comput Appl"},{"key":"ref167","article-title":"System and method for detecting and countering a network attack","author":"etheridge","year":"2002"},{"key":"ref166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1216370.1216373"},{"key":"ref165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ATNAC.2017.8215367"},{"key":"ref164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44774-1_6","article-title":"Game-theoretic analysis of DDoS attacks against bitcoin mining pools","author":"johnson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Financial Cryptography and Data Security"},{"key":"ref163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCNC.2019.8685577"},{"key":"ref162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2810103.2813621"},{"key":"ref161","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dynamic practical Byzantine fault tolerance","author":"xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc IEEE Conf Commun Netw Security (CNS)"},{"key":"ref160","first-page":"173","article-title":"Practical Byzantine fault tolerance","author":"castro","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc of the 2nd USENIX Symp on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI)"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2016.55"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2015.14"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCE.2018.2816745"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2993600.2993611"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2801266"},{"key":"ref159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2810103.2813655"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2017.0619"},{"key":"ref49","author":"baldwin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bitcoin worth72 million stolen from Bitfinex exchange in Hong Kong"},{"key":"ref157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CSF.2015.34"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5220\/0006531600130020"},{"key":"ref158","author":"exchange","year":"2019","journal-title":"What Is a Block Withholding Attack?"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-54455-6_8"},{"key":"ref45","first-page":"653","article-title":"A survey of blockchain security issues and challenges","volume":"19","author":"lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Netw Security"},{"key":"ref48","author":"siegel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Understanding the dao attack"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2818623"},{"key":"ref42","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ethereum contract security techniques and tips"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-66332-6_13"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2994581"},{"key":"ref43","author":"grincalaitis","year":"2017","journal-title":"The Ultimate Guide to Audit a Smart Contract"},{"key":"ref73","author":"scott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bitcoin Academic Research"},{"key":"ref72","author":"decker","year":"2018","journal-title":"cDecker\/btcresearch"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/EuroSPW.2018.00013"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3213006"},{"key":"ref76","author":"anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"New kids on the block An analysis of modern blockchains"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70278-0_19"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.08.020"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2863956"},{"key":"ref78","author":"silva","year":"2009","journal-title":"DNSSEC The Antidote to DNS Cache Poisoning and Other DNS Attacks"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/EuroSP.2016.32"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3035918.3064033"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3286978.3286985"},{"key":"ref61","first-page":"379","article-title":"A blockchain based system to ensure transparency and reliability in food supply chain","author":"baralla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Int Workshops Parallel Process"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sec.1748"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2016.2566339"},{"key":"ref65","author":"miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sprites and State Channels Payment Networks that Go Faster than Lightning"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3211890.3211904"},{"key":"ref67","author":"lundbaek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Optimizing Governed Blockchains for Financial Process Authentications"},{"key":"ref68","first-page":"454","article-title":"R3C3: Cryptographically secure censorship resistant rendezvous using cryptocurrencies","volume":"2018","author":"minaei","year":"2018","journal-title":"IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive"},{"key":"ref69","author":"bissias","year":"2016","journal-title":"An Analysis of Attacks on Blockchain Consensus"},{"key":"ref197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-00470-5_29"},{"key":"ref198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-32101-7_1"},{"key":"ref199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2018.8644498"},{"key":"ref193","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.08.029"},{"key":"ref194","first-page":"609","article-title":"The bitcoin brain drain: Examining the use and abuse of bitcoin brain wallets","author":"vasek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Financial Cryptography and Data Security"},{"key":"ref195","author":"peterson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thieves Stole Potentially Millions of Dollars in Bitcoin in a Hacking Attack on a Cryptocurrency Company"},{"key":"ref196","author":"duggan","year":"2019","journal-title":"The 12 Biggest Cryptocurrency Hacks in History"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ITME.2018.00196"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2018.8406859"},{"key":"ref190","year":"2018","journal-title":"Google Trends analytics"},{"key":"ref93","author":"castor","year":"2017","journal-title":"A (short) guide to blockchain consensus protocols"},{"key":"ref191","author":"singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cryptojacking Attacks Rose by 8 500% Globally in 2017 Report"},{"key":"ref92","first-page":"151","article-title":"Client puzzles: A cryptographic countermeasure against connection depletion attacks","author":"juels","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc Network and Distributed System Security Symp (NDSS)"},{"key":"ref192","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Cyber Threat to U K Business 2017–2018 Report"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/168588.168596"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3318041.3355458"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70278-0_36"},{"key":"ref99","first-page":"197","article-title":"Formal analysis of a proof-of-stake blockchain","author":"thin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc 23rd Int Conf Eng Complex Comput Syst (ICECCS)"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23919\/MIPRO.2018.8400278"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CDC.2018.8619082"},{"key":"ref82","author":"courtois","year":"2014","journal-title":"On subversive miner strategies and block withholding attack in bitcoin digital currency"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44774-1_12","article-title":"One weird trick to stop selfish miners: Fresh bitcoins, a solution for the honest miner","author":"heilman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Financial Cryptography and Data Security"},{"key":"ref84","first-page":"463","article-title":"An empirical analysis of anonymity in ZCASH","author":"kappos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Usenix Security Symp"},{"key":"ref83","author":"solat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Zeroblock Preventing selfish mining in bitcoin"},{"key":"ref80","first-page":"515","article-title":"Optimal selfish mining strategies in bitcoin","author":"sapirshtein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Financial Cryptography and Data Security"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978408"},{"key":"ref85","author":"h\u00fclsing","year":"2015","journal-title":"XMSS Extended Hash-Based Signatures"},{"key":"ref86","author":"kiran","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bitcoin Risk Analysis"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39498-0_7"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MENACOMM.2018.8371010"},{"key":"ref200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IWBOSE.2018.8327565"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3205230.3205233"},{"key":"ref100","author":"gui","year":"2018","journal-title":"A memo on the proof-of-stake mechanism"},{"key":"ref209","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adguard Adblocker"},{"key":"ref203","first-page":"1","article-title":"HotNets-XVI","author":"banerjee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc 11th ACM Workshop Hot Topics Netw"},{"key":"ref204","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCN.2017.8038513"},{"key":"ref201","year":"2019","journal-title":"Consensys\/Smart-Contract-Best-Practices"},{"key":"ref202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-72359-4_1"},{"key":"ref207","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anti Miner—No 1 Coin Minerblock"},{"key":"ref208","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coin Miner Block"},{"key":"ref205","year":"2019","journal-title":"bitcoin\/bips"},{"key":"ref206","year":"2019","journal-title":"Storing Bitcoins"},{"key":"ref211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2875782"},{"key":"ref210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2842685"},{"key":"ref212","author":"wood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ethereum A Secure Decentralised Generalised Transaction Ledger"},{"key":"ref213","first-page":"123","article-title":"Electronic voting service using blockchain","volume":"11","author":"lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Digital Forensics Security and Law"},{"key":"ref214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-802117-0.00022-9"},{"key":"ref215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/glr2.2017.21613"},{"key":"ref216","first-page":"1861","article-title":"On the security and scalability of bitcoin’s blockchain","author":"karame","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc ACM SIGSAC Conf Comput Commun Security"},{"key":"ref217","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2535718"},{"key":"ref218","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2019.8737490"},{"key":"ref219","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISC2.2018.8656983"},{"key":"ref220","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978341"},{"key":"ref222","first-page":"241","article-title":"Uncle-block attack: Blockchain mining threat beyond block withholding for rational and uncooperative miners","author":"wuthier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Int'l Conf Applied Cryptography and Network Security"},{"key":"ref221","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIT.2019.8849573"},{"key":"ref228","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCN.2018.8487351"},{"key":"ref227","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-00305-0_13"},{"key":"ref226","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2018.8647279"},{"key":"ref225","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SAHCN.2018.8397151"},{"key":"ref224","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2921566"},{"key":"ref223","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCNC.2019.8685563"},{"key":"ref127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-78375-8_1"},{"key":"ref126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2019.8761448"},{"key":"ref125","first-page":"363","article-title":"A blockchain-based traceable certification system","author":"chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int Conf Security Intell Comput Big data"},{"key":"ref124","first-page":"889","article-title":"A provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol","volume":"2016","author":"kiayias","year":"2016","journal-title":"IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive"},{"key":"ref129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3284764.3284767"},{"key":"ref128","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-45472-5_28"},{"key":"ref133","author":"bahack","year":"2013","journal-title":"Theoretical Bitcoin Attacks with less than Half of the Computational Power (draft)"},{"key":"ref134","year":"2019","journal-title":"Largest crypto-mining marketplace"},{"key":"ref131","author":"grunspan","year":"2018","journal-title":"On profitability of selfish mining"},{"key":"ref132","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thetangle org—Iota Tangle Explorer and Statistics"},{"key":"ref136","author":"community","year":"2019","journal-title":"PoW 51% attack cost"},{"key":"ref135","first-page":"19","article-title":"Why buy when you can rent? Bribery attacks on bitcoin-style consensus","author":"bonneau","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Financ Cryptography Data Security (FC Workshops)"},{"key":"ref138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-56614-6_22"},{"key":"ref137","author":"roberts","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bitcoin Spinoff Hacked in Rare ‘51% Attack’"},{"key":"ref139","author":"zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"An analysis of blockchain consistency in asynchronous networks Deriving a neat bound"},{"key":"ref140","article-title":"Analysis of Nakamoto consensus","author":"ren","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/571637.571640"},{"key":"ref142","author":"kang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Domain name system security and privacy Old problems and new challenges"},{"key":"ref143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/90.974527"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2016.23187"},{"key":"ref144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13198-013-0179-0"},{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5220\/0006648801270138"},{"key":"ref145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751229"},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-02744-5_1"},{"key":"ref108","first-page":"195","article-title":"Is blockchain hashing an effective method for electronic governance?","volume":"313","author":"konashevych","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Annu Conf Legal Knowl Inf Syst Annu Conf"},{"key":"ref107","first-page":"1","article-title":"Blockchain consensus protocols in the wild (keynote talk)","author":"cachin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Int l Symp Distributed Computing (DISC)"},{"key":"ref106","first-page":"754","article-title":"SOK: A consensus taxonomy in the blockchain era","volume":"2018","author":"garay","year":"2018","journal-title":"IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/QRS-C.2018.00034"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTC.2018.8539529"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SRDS.2017.36"},{"key":"ref102","first-page":"1","article-title":"PBFT vs proof-of-authority: Applying the CAP theorem to permissioned blockchain","volume":"2058","author":"angelis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Italian Conf Cyber Secur"},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3133956.3134019"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3211933.3211947"},{"key":"ref110","first-page":"78","article-title":"Analysis of the bitcoin UTXO set","author":"delgado-segura","year":"2018","journal-title":"Financial Cryptography and Data Security Workshops"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9675050"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1700041"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2886932"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-017-0502-4"},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"6","article-title":"The impact of blockchain technology on business models in the payments industry","author":"holotiuk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Leadership Digit Transf Internationale Tagung Wirtschaftsinformatik"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-53357-4_4"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5220\/0006609700960107"},{"key":"ref118","year":"2018","journal-title":"A Brief History of Bitcoin Mining Hardware"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/Cybermatics_2018.2018.00262"},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2018.2885266"},{"key":"ref18","author":"eljazzar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Merging supply chain and blockchain technologies"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2018.494"},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joule.2018.04.016"},{"key":"ref114","author":"de la porte","year":"2012","journal-title":"The bitcoin transaction system"},{"key":"ref113","author":"hanke","year":"2016","journal-title":"AsicBoost—A speedup for bitcoin mining"},{"key":"ref116","author":"community","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bitcoin difficulty"},{"key":"ref115","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bitcoin block explorer"},{"key":"ref120","first-page":"263","article-title":"Bitcoin’s growing pains: Intermediation and the need for an effective loss allocation mechanism","volume":"6","author":"kang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Michigan Bus Entrepreneurial Law Rev"},{"key":"ref121","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bitcoin energy consumption index"},{"key":"ref122","author":"king","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ppcoin Peer-to-peer Crypto-currency with Proof-of-stake"},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCBT.2018.00015"}],"container-title":["IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/xplorestaging.ieee.org\/ielx7\/9739\/9173582\/09019870.pdf?arnumber=9019870","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,28]],"date-time":"2023-09-28T00:10:09Z","timestamp":1695859809000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9019870\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020]]},"references-count":228,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/comst.2020.2975999","relation":{},"ISSN":["1553-877X","2373-745X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1553-877X","type":"electronic"},{"value":"2373-745X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020]]}}}