{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T19:38:37Z","timestamp":1767382717693},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,1]],"date-time":"2019-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/Xplorehelp\/downloads\/license-information\/IEEE.html"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,1]],"date-time":"2019-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569888000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,1]],"date-time":"2019-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569888000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IEEE Annals Hist. Comput."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,1]]},"DOI":"10.1109\/mahc.2019.2896282","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,23]],"date-time":"2020-06-23T20:11:28Z","timestamp":1592943088000},"page":"34-47","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Development of Consent to Computing"],"prefix":"10.1109","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Meg Leta","family":"Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Georgetown University"}]}],"member":"263","reference":[{"key":"ref72","year":"0","journal-title":"“Guidelines on Consent under Regulation 2016\/679 ” Article 29 Working Party Report 17\/EN WP259 Nov 28 2017"},{"key":"ref71","year":"0","journal-title":"D Solove and W Hartzog “The FTC and the new privacy common law ” Columbia Law Rev vol 114 pp 583–676 2014"},{"key":"ref70","year":"0","journal-title":"W McGeveran Privacy and Data Protection Law New York NY USA Foundation 2016"},{"key":"ref39","year":"0","journal-title":"C J Bennett Regulating Privacy Cornell University Press 1992"},{"key":"ref38","year":"0","journal-title":"See Schwartz Paul M and Joel R Reidenberg Data Privacy Law A Study of United States Data Protection (reprint of European Union Report) Lexis Pub 1996"},{"key":"ref33","year":"0","journal-title":"Loi 78-17 du 6 janvier 1978 relative à l'informatique aux fichiers et aux libertés (version consolidée au 27 août 2011) [Law 78-17 of January 6 1978 on Information Technologies Data Files and Civil Liberties]"},{"key":"ref32","year":"0","journal-title":"Flaherty supra note 18 at 171 (citing 01 hebdo ze?ro un informatique May 18 1981)"},{"key":"ref31","year":"0","journal-title":"S Nora and A Minc The Computerization of Society A Report to the President of France (English Translation of 1978 Report) Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 1980"},{"key":"ref30","year":"0","journal-title":"Y Poullet “Data Protection between Property and Liberties A Civil Law Approach ” In Amongst friends in computers and law A collection of essays in remembrance of Guy Vandenberghe Kluwer pp 161–181 1990"},{"key":"ref37","year":"0","journal-title":"Younger Report p 182"},{"key":"ref36","year":"0","journal-title":"For a list of proposed and failed privacy bills see the appendix of the Younger Report"},{"key":"ref35","year":"0","journal-title":"Most notably the “Younger Report” (Younger Kenneth “Report of the Committee on Privacy ” Cmnd 5012 Her Majesty's State Office (1972)) the Justice Committee's “Privacy and the Law Report” (Committee on Privacy of “Justice ” British Section of the International Commission of Jurists (1970) and the “Lindop Report” (Norman Lindop “Report of the Committee on Data Protection ” Cmnd 7341 Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1978)"},{"key":"ref34","year":"0","journal-title":"Section 31(1) of the Act declares that express “agreement” (accord exprès) must be given to record or store personal data related to racial origins or political philosophical or religious affiliations in computer memory This must be interpreted as secondary to the commission's monitoring and approval"},{"key":"ref60","year":"0","journal-title":"OECD Thirty Years After the OECD Privacy Guidelines 2011 p 8"},{"key":"ref62","year":"0","journal-title":"“Communication on the protection of individuals in relation to the processing of personal data in the COmmunity and information security ” Commission of the European Communities COM (90) 314 final - SYN 287 - SYN 288 (Sep 13 1990)"},{"key":"ref61","year":"0","journal-title":"The Council of Europe is not a law-making body but can enforce its international agreements through the European Court of Human Rights"},{"key":"ref63","year":"0","journal-title":"W J Campbell 1995 The Year the Future Began Berkeley CA USA Univ of California Press 2015"},{"key":"ref28","year":"0","journal-title":"A Vitalis Informatique pouvoir et libertés 2e éd FeniXX 1988"},{"key":"ref64","year":"0","journal-title":"A Fitzpatrick L Eadicicco and M Peckham “The 15 most influential websites of all ” Time (Oct 20 2017) http \/\/time com\/4960202\/most-influential-websites\/"},{"key":"ref27","year":"0","journal-title":"A Vitalis “France ” in J B Rule and G Greenleaf Eds Global Privacy Protection The First Generation Cheltenham U K Edward Elgar Pub 2008 pp 107–140"},{"key":"ref65","year":"0","journal-title":"J Hart R R Reed and F Bar “The building of the Internet Implications for the future of broadband networks ” Telecommun Policy vol 16 no 8 pp 666–689 1992"},{"key":"ref66","year":"0","journal-title":"Other than consent the five other legal bases for processing data are 1) to fulfill a contract with the individual 2) compliance with a legal obligation requires the processing of personal data 3) vital interests (e g when processing data is necessary to protect someone's life) 4) a public task (e g those tasks assigned to government departments schools hospitals etc ) and 5) legitimate interests of the processor (other than public authorities) not outweighed by negative effects to the data subject's rights and freedoms So the first three are presumed to have already met a justification for consent either by assumption (fulfillment of contract or physical health) or societal recognition (public tasks) but other legitimate interests are less clear Consent must be specific informed and unambiguous—meaning consent is provided in as “clear or affirmative action ” Silence or inactivity (e g pre-checked boxes) are invalid under the regulation"},{"key":"ref29","year":"0","journal-title":"“Rapport tricot et annexes ” Commission Nationale de l'informatique et Libertés 1975"},{"key":"ref67","year":"0","journal-title":"D Korff EC study on implementation of data protection directive (Study Contract ETD\/2001\/B5-3001\/A\/49) 2002"},{"key":"ref68","year":"0","journal-title":"“Consent and Privacy A discussion paper exploring potential enhancements to consent under the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act ” Policy and Research Group of the Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada Report 10 22 2015"},{"key":"ref69","year":"0","journal-title":"For a thorough history of the FTC and its role in American privacy see C J Hoofnagle Federal Trade Commission Privacy Law and Policy Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 2016"},{"key":"ref2","year":"0","journal-title":"E g J Pearl and D Mackenzie The Book of Why The New Science of Cause and Effect New York NY USA Basic Books 2018 R R Kline The Cybernetics Moment Or Why We Call Our Age the Information Age Baltimore MD USA Johns Hopkins Univ Press 2015 R Slayton “Measuring risk Computer security metrics automation and learning ” IEEE Ann Hist Comput vol 37 no 2 pp 32–45 Apr –Jun 2015 E Brynjolfsson and A McAfee The Second Machine Age Work Progress and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies New York NY USA WW Norton 2014"},{"key":"ref1","year":"0","journal-title":"E g S de Chadarevian and T Porter Eds Special Issue Histories of Data and the Database Hist Stud Nat Sci vol 48 no 5 Nov 2018 E Aronova C von Oertzen and D Sepkoski Eds Special Issue Historicizing Big Data Osiris 32 2017"},{"key":"ref20","year":"0","journal-title":"HEW was a cabinet-level department from 1953 to 1979 when a separate Department of Education was created and HEW became the Department of Health and Human Services"},{"key":"ref22","year":"0","journal-title":"Privacy Collection Use and Computerization of Personal Data Part 1 HRG-1974-OPS-0008 (June 18–20 1974) Privacy Collection Use and Computerization of Personal Data Part 2 HRG-1974-OPS-0009 (June 1 1974)"},{"key":"ref21","year":"0","journal-title":"Nor was consent a major part of the Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970 considered by some to be the first federal data protection law and wherein individuals are referred to as consumers though it only applies to credit reporting agencies (those entities that generate reports on individuals for businesses like credit card companies banks employers and landlords) Consent has only been required only recently for credit reporting agencies disclosing reports with medical information or for employment decisions"},{"key":"ref24","year":"0","journal-title":"M Bäck Datorisering och Datapolitik Liber The Hague The Netherlands 1986 F W Hondius Emerging Data Protection in Europe Amsterdam The Netherlands Elsevier 1975 J Freese The Swedish Data Act Svenska Institutet Stockholm Sweden 1982"},{"key":"ref23","year":"0","journal-title":"Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights Committee on Government Operations (12 July 1977) Final Report of the Privacy Protection Study Commission HRG-1977-SGA-0058 p 502"},{"key":"ref26","year":"0","journal-title":"Datalagen (Swedish Data Act) Section 3(2)"},{"key":"ref25","year":"0","journal-title":"D H Flaherty Protecting Privacy in Surveillance Societies Chapel Hill NC USA Univ North Carolina Press 1989"},{"key":"ref50","year":"0","journal-title":"P L Frana “Telematics and the early history of international digital information flows ” IEEE Ann Hist Comput vol 40 no 2 pp 32–47 Apr –Jun 2018 (“Telematics liberated data for new export markets It permitted the automation of work especially remote work done at a distance It encouraged the international division of labor It inspired specialization and centralization of functions including aggregation and storage and localization of data consumption ”)"},{"key":"ref51","year":"0","journal-title":"P Flichy Dynamics of Modern Communication The Shaping and Impact of New Communications Technologies Newbury Park CA USA Sage 1995 Noam Eli Telecommunications in Europe London U K Oxford Univ Press 1992"},{"key":"ref59","year":"0","journal-title":"Consent is mentioned in Article 15(3) which reads “In no case may a designated authority be allowed to make under Article 14 paragraph 2 a request for assistance on behalf of a data subject resident abroad of its own accord and without the express consent of the person concerned ”"},{"key":"ref58","year":"0","journal-title":"Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (ETS 108) (28 01 1981)"},{"key":"ref57","year":"0","journal-title":"Council of Europe Resolution 74 (29) on the protection of the privacy of individuals vis-à-vis electronic data banks in the public sector 1974"},{"key":"ref56","year":"0","journal-title":"Council of Europe Resolution (73) 22 on the protection of the privacy of individuals vis-à-vis electronic data banks in the private sector 1973"},{"key":"ref55","year":"0","journal-title":"Rapporteur K Czernetz Human Rights and Modern Scientific and Technological Developments Council of Europe - Parliamentary Assembly Doc 2326 Jan 22 1968"},{"key":"ref54","year":"0","journal-title":"J Shahin “A European history of the internet ” Sci Public Policy vol 33 no 9 pp 681–693 2006"},{"key":"ref53","year":"0","journal-title":"See for example the U K 's relationship with the U S ARPANET P Kirstein “Early experiences with the ARPANET and INTERNET in the U K ” IEEE Ann Hist Comput vol 21 no 1 pp 38–44 Jan –Mar 1999"},{"key":"ref52","year":"0","journal-title":"From the European Informatics Network in 1976 European Unix Network in 1982 and European Academic and Research Network in 1983 to the EURONET of 1984 (when its technical standards were distributed) and Ebone backbone of 1992 mix and match efforts of researchers computer scientists policy-makers and telecommunications stakeholders attempted to create a European internet"},{"key":"ref10","year":"0","journal-title":"H M Hurd “The moral magic of consent ” Legal Theory vol 2 pp 121–146 1996"},{"key":"ref11","year":"0","journal-title":"R R Faden and T L Beauchamp A History and Theory of Informed Consent London U K Oxford Univ Press 1986 D Beyleveld and R Brownsword Consent in the Law London U K Bloomsbury Publishing 2007"},{"key":"ref40","year":"0","journal-title":"“Privacy and Computers ” Department of Communications and Department of Justice 1972"},{"key":"ref12","year":"0","journal-title":"P E Ceruzzi History of Modern Computing 2nd ed Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 2003"},{"key":"ref13","year":"0","journal-title":"N Ensmenger “The digital construction of technology Rethinking the history of computers in society ” Technol Culture vol 53 no 4 pp 753–776 2012"},{"key":"ref14","year":"0","journal-title":"Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data Reference ETS No 108 [Convention 108]"},{"key":"ref15","year":"0","journal-title":"L Joinet “Draft Guidelines for the Regulation of Computerized Personal Data Files ” E\/CN 4\/Sub 2\/1985\/21 Geneva Switzerland UN 23 Jun 1985"},{"key":"ref16","year":"0","journal-title":"M L Jones “A right to a human in the loop Political constructions of computer automation and personhood ” Soc Stud Sci vol 4 pp 216–239 2017"},{"key":"ref17","year":"0","journal-title":"D Bouk “The national data center and the rise of the data double ” Hist Stud Nat Sci vol 48 no 5 pp 627–636 2018"},{"key":"ref18","year":"0","journal-title":"S E Igo “Me and my data ” Hist Stud Nat Sci vol 48 no 5 pp 616–626 2018"},{"key":"ref19","year":"0","journal-title":"A Westin Privacy and Freedom New York NY USA Atheneum 1967"},{"key":"ref4","year":"0","journal-title":"James W Cortada The Digital Flood The Diffusion of Information Technology Across the US Europe and Asia London U K Oxford Univ Press 2012 M Hicks Programmed Inequality How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 2017 B Peters How Not to Network a Nation The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 2016 E Medina Cybernetic Revolutionaries Technology and Politics in Allende's Chile Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 2011 J Mailland and K Driscoll Minitel Welcome to the Internet Cambridge MA USA MIT Press 2017"},{"key":"ref3","year":"0","journal-title":"E g S E Igo The Known Citizen A History of Privacy in Modern America Cambridge MA USA Harvard Univ Press 2018 J Lauer Creditworthy A History of Consumer Surveillance and Financial Identity in America New York NY USA Columbia Univ Press 2017 S Browne Dark Matters On the Surveillance of Blackness Durham NC USA Duke Univ Press 2015"},{"key":"ref6","year":"0","journal-title":"D J Solove “Privacy self-management and the consent dilemma ” Harvard Law Rev vol 126 pp 1880–1903 2013"},{"key":"ref5","year":"0","journal-title":"G C Diaz “Ownership and the history of American computing ” IEEE Ann Hist Comput vol 34 no 2 pp 88–87 Feb 2012 G C Diaz “Contested ontologies of software The story of Gottschalk v Benson 1963–1972 ” IEEE Ann Hist Comput vol 38 no 1 pp 23–33 Jan –Mar 2016"},{"key":"ref8","year":"0","journal-title":"B W Shermer B Custers and S van der Hof “The crisis of consent how stronger legal protection may lead to weaker consent in data protection ” Ethics Inf Technol vol 16 no 2 pp 171–182 2014"},{"key":"ref7","year":"0","journal-title":"M L Jones Ctrl+Z The Right to be Forgotten New York NY USA NYU Press 2016 Note that the contemporary digital right to be forgotten is a response to the challenges of providing effective affirmative consent and is often an act of revoking one's consent"},{"key":"ref49","year":"0","journal-title":"L Ilshammar “When computers became dangerous the swedish computer discourse of the 1960s ” HumanIT vol 9 pp 6–37 2007"},{"key":"ref9","year":"0","journal-title":"J Kleinig “The nature of consent ” in F Miller and A Wertheimer Eds The Ethics of Consent Theory and Practice London U K Oxford Univ Press 2010 pp 4–26"},{"key":"ref46","year":"0","journal-title":"Bundesverfassungsgericht decisions volume 65 p 1 ff See also Data protection in Germany I The population census decision and the right to informational self-determination Gerrit Hornung & Christoph Schnabel"},{"key":"ref45","year":"0","journal-title":"The Federal Ministry of the Interior conducted a survey to understand the opposition and found that 45% of the population disagreed that everyone should complete the census questionnaire and even more opposed the census generally because of they were concerned about information misuse Only sheep let themselves be counted citing Bundesarchiv Koblenz (BAK) B 106 Nr 115173"},{"key":"ref48","year":"0","journal-title":"The Preface also mentions Great Britain's commission but does not one paragraph later mention its report by name instead including only these three"},{"key":"ref47","year":"0","journal-title":"F Hondius Emerging Data Protection in Europe 1975 Flaherty supra note 18"},{"key":"ref42","year":"0","journal-title":"Hessisches Datenschutzgesetz Gesetz und Verordungsblatt I (1970) 625 [The Hesse Data Protection Act of 1970]"},{"key":"ref41","year":"0","journal-title":"“Access to Information Legislation ” Cabinet Discussion Paper Secretary of State and Minister of Communication June 1980 “Interim Policy Guide Access to Information Act and the Privacy Act ” Treasury Board Canada Jun 1983"},{"key":"ref44","year":"0","journal-title":"The term “informational self-determination” was originally used by Christoph Mallmann Datenschutz in Verwaltungs-Informationssystemen pp 47–79 1976 Later introduced into the Census case by one of the plaintiffs Adalbert Podlech who had written about it in Kommentar zum Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland Art 2 Abs 1 66 (Rudolf Wassermann ed 1984) “Informational self-determination may or may not (importantly) “exclude tasks carried out in the public interest or in the exercise of official authorities’ duties based on personal data ” W Kilian “Germany ” in J B Rule and G Greenleaf Eds Global Privacy Protection The First Generation Cheltenham U K Edward Elgar Pub 2008 pp 80–106"},{"key":"ref43","year":"0","journal-title":"Though all of the EU now operates under the same regulations"}],"container-title":["IEEE Annals of the History of 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