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Intratracheal challenge of mice with\n                    <jats:italic>Streptococcus pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                    significantly increased HMGB1 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Immunostaining of lung sections revealed HMGB1 localization in both alveolar epithelial and infiltrating polymorphonuclear cells in\n                    <jats:italic>S. pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2010infected mice. In vitro, pneumolysin, a pore\u2010forming pneumococcal toxin, causes HMGB1 release from neutrophils. Additionally, recombinant HMGB1 enhanced TNF\u2010\u03b1 production in RAW264.7 macrophages, human neutrophils, and THP\u20101 cells. 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