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Growth of the gonads and secondary sexual characteristics is orchestrated by the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPG<\/jats:styled-content>) axis. However, our understanding of the physiological mechanisms by which food availability modulates activity of the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPG<\/jats:styled-content> axis is limited.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item>\n<jats:p>It is thought that many factors, including energetic status, modulate seasonal reproductive activation. We tested the hypothesis that food availability modulates the activity of the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPG<\/jats:styled-content> axis in a songbird. Specifically, we food\u2010restricted captive adult male Abert's Towhees <jats:italic>Melozone aberti<\/jats:italic> for 2 or 4\u00a0weeks during photoinduced reproductive development. A third group (control) received <jats:italic>ad\u00a0libitum<\/jats:italic> food throughout. We measured multiple aspects of the reproductive system including endocrine activity of all three levels of the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPG<\/jats:styled-content> axis [i.e. hypothalamic gonadotropin\u2010releasing hormone\u2010I (Gn<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RH<\/jats:styled-content>\u2010I), plasma luteinizing hormone (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">LH<\/jats:styled-content>) and testosterone (T)], and gonad morphology. Furthermore, because gonadotropin\u2010inhibitory hormone (Gn<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">IH<\/jats:styled-content>) and neuropeptide Y (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">NPY<\/jats:styled-content>; a potent orexigenic peptide) potentially integrate information on food availability into seasonal reproductive development, we also measured the brain levels of these peptides.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item>\n<jats:p>At the hypothalamic level, we detected no effect of food restriction on immunoreactive (ir) Gn<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RH<\/jats:styled-content>\u2010I, but the duration of food restriction was inversely related to the size of ir\u2010Gn<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">IH<\/jats:styled-content> perikarya. Furthermore, the number of ir\u2010<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">NPY<\/jats:styled-content> cells was higher in food\u2010restricted than control birds. Food restriction did not influence photoinduced testicular growth, but decreased plasma <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">LH<\/jats:styled-content> and T, and width of the cloacal protuberance, an androgen\u2010sensitive secondary sexual characteristic. Returning birds to <jats:italic>ad\u00a0libitum<\/jats:italic> food availability had no effect on plasma <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">LH<\/jats:styled-content> or T, but caused the cloacal protuberance to rapidly increase in size to that of <jats:italic>ad\u00a0libitum<\/jats:italic>\u2010fed birds.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item>\n<jats:p>Our results support the tenet that food availability modulates photoinduced reproductive activation. However, they also suggest that this modulation is complex and depends upon the level of the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPG<\/jats:styled-content> axis considered. At the hypothalamic level, our results are consistent with a role for the Gn<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">IH<\/jats:styled-content> and <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">NPY<\/jats:styled-content> systems in integrating information on energetic status. There also appears to be a role for endocrine function at the anterior pituitary gland and testicular levels in modulating reproductive development in the light of energetic status and independently of testicular growth.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list>\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12448","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,27]],"date-time":"2015-03-27T22:17:00Z","timestamp":1427494620000},"page":"1421-1434","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Food availability, energetic constraints and reproductive development in a wild seasonally breeding songbird"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Scott","family":"Davies","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Sciences Arizona State University Tempe Arizona 85287 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Cros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facult\u00e9 des Sciences Fondamentales et 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