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In particular, little is known about the adaptive immune responses of wild herbivore hosts against <jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">B<\/jats:styled-content>acillus anthracis<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Working in the natural anthrax system of Etosha National Park, Namibia, we collected 154 serum samples from plains zebra (<jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">E<\/jats:styled-content>quus quagga<\/jats:italic>), 21 from springbok (<jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">A<\/jats:styled-content>ntidorcas marsupialis<\/jats:italic>) and 45 from African elephants (<jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">L<\/jats:styled-content>oxodonta africana<\/jats:italic>) over 2\u20133\u00a0years, resampling individuals when possible for seasonal and longitudinal comparisons. We used enzyme\u2010linked immunosorbent assays to measure anti\u2010anthrax antibody titres and developed three increasingly conservative models to determine endpoint titres with more rigourous, objective mensuration.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Between 52 and 87% of zebra, 0\u201315% of springbok and 3\u201352% of elephants had measurable anti\u2010anthrax antibody titres, depending on the model used. While the ability of elephants and springbok to mount anti\u2010anthrax adaptive immune responses is still equivocal, our results indicate that zebra in <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ENP<\/jats:styled-content> often survive sublethal anthrax infections, encounter most <jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">B<\/jats:styled-content>. anthracis<\/jats:italic> in the wet season and can partially booster their immunity to <jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">B<\/jats:styled-content>.\u00a0anthracis<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Thus, rather than being solely a lethal disease, anthrax often occurs as a sublethal infection in some susceptible hosts. Though we found that adaptive immunity to anthrax wanes rapidly, subsequent and frequent sublethal <jats:italic><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">B<\/jats:styled-content>.\u00a0anthracis<\/jats:italic> infections cause maturation of anti\u2010anthrax immunity. By triggering host immune responses, these common sublethal infections may act as immunomodulators and affect population dynamics through indirect immunological and co\u2010infection effects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>In addition, with our three endpoint titre models, we introduce more mensuration rigour into serological antibody assays, even under the often\u2010restrictive conditions that come with adapting laboratory immunology methods to wild systems. With these methods, we identified significantly more zebras responding immunologically to anthrax than have previous studies using less comprehensive titre analyses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list>\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12207","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,5]],"date-time":"2014-02-05T16:49:12Z","timestamp":1391618952000},"page":"1078-1090","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Frequent and seasonally variable sublethal anthrax infections are accompanied by short\u2010lived immunity in an endemic system"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"83","author":[{"given":"Carrie A.","family":"Cizauskas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science, Policy &amp; Management University of California, Berkeley Berkeley CA USA"},{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Princeton University Princeton NJ USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven E.","family":"Bellan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science, Policy &amp; 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