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However, parasite\u2010induced effects on phenotypic and demographic traits are often inconsistent, leaving researchers uncertain about their impact and whether they have meaningful fitness consequences.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Here, we present a meta\u2010analysis evaluating the effects of avian blood parasites (<jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Haemoproteus<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Leucocytozoon<\/jats:italic>), a widespread and cosmopolitan stressor, on songbird species. Through a systematic review of 2473 publications, we identified 35 studies spanning 51 species and extracted 172 relevant effect sizes assessing host condition, phenology, reproduction and survival.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Our findings reveal consistent negative impacts: reductions in body condition, reproductive success and survival, along with delays in phenological events such as breeding. Furthermore, our findings revealed a critical research gap: despite the widespread study of avian blood parasites, only a limited number provide suitable effect sizes for assessing parasite impacts on demographic traits\u2014let alone behavioural traits. This scarcity of data highlights the urgent need to understand pathogen\u2010induced effects on animal behaviour and demography, especially in the face of accelerating global change. We advocate for an integrative approach, combining behavioural, phenotypic, and demographic traits, to uncover the cascading consequences of parasitic infections on wild populations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list>\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.70106","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,12]],"date-time":"2025-07-12T08:48:33Z","timestamp":1752310113000},"page":"1908-1921","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Subtle stressors\u2014Strong responses. 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