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This is despite the fact that modern calorie rich diets are often also deficient in key micronutrients. The importance of micronutrients in gestational disorders is clearly understood but how they impact long term disease in humans requires further investigation. In contrast, animal studies have demonstrated how diets high or low in specific micronutrients influence offspring physiology. Many of these studies highlight the importance of the placenta in determining disease risk. This review will explore the effects of individual vitamins, minerals and trace elements on offspring disease outcomes and discuss several key placental adaptations that are affected by multiple micronutrients. These placental adaptations include micronutrient induced dysregulation of oxidative stress, altered methyl donor availability and its impact on epigenetic mechanisms as well as endocrine dysfunction. Critical gaps in our current knowledge and the relative importance of different micronutrients at different gestational ages will also be highlighted. Finally, this review will discuss the need for further studies to characterise the micronutrient status of Australian women of reproductive age and correlate micronutrient status to placental adaptations, pregnancy complications and offspring disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1440-1681.12954","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,21]],"date-time":"2018-04-21T08:44:46Z","timestamp":1524300286000},"page":"871-884","update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Placental adaptations to micronutrient dysregulation in the programming of chronic disease"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"45","author":[{"given":"Pierre","family":"Hofstee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medical Science Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University Gold Coast Campus  Southport QLD Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel 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