{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T10:52:54Z","timestamp":1769424774453,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765929600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Intl J Lang &amp;amp; Comm Disor"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Adolescents with developmental language disorder (DLD) are known to be at increased risk for socio\u2010emotional difficulties. Yet, there remains considerable uncertainty about how problems in language abilities, executive functioning (EF), and theory of mind (ToM) contribute to the socio\u2010emotional difficulties observed in this group. In addition, only a limited number of studies have compared adolescents with and without DLD on these underlying cognitive and linguistic domains.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study examined (1) differences between adolescents with and without DLD in language, EF, ToM, and socio\u2010emotional functioning, (2) associations among these domains, and (3) the unique contributions of language, EF, and ToM to socio\u2010emotional functioning.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods and Procedures<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Forty adolescents with developmental language disorder (DLD) and 36 typically developing (TD) peers, matched for age and education level, completed measures of receptive vocabulary, visuospatial working memory (Corsi Block\u2010Tapping Task), cognitive flexibility (Berg Card\u2010Sorting Test), cognitive ToM (ToMotion task), and affective ToM (Emotion Recognition Task). Parents completed the IKAN questionnaire, which served as the measure of socio\u2010emotional functioning. Group differences were assessed using independent\u2010samples\n                      <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2010tests and Mann\u2013Whitney\n                      <jats:italic>U<\/jats:italic>\n                      tests. Associations were examined using Spearman correlations. Multiple regression analyses were conducted with the IKAN total score as the outcome variable.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Outcomes and Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Adolescents with DLD scored significantly lower than their TD peers on receptive language, cognitive ToM, and socio\u2010emotional functioning as measured by the IKAN. They showed significantly reduced scores on seven of the eight socio\u2010emotional subscales. No significant group differences were found for visuospatial working memory, cognitive flexibility, or affective ToM. Receptive vocabulary correlated positively with cognitive flexibility, both ToM measures, and several IKAN subscales. Cognitive ToM showed consistent moderate associations with overall socio\u2010emotional functioning. In the regression model, cognitive ToM was the only significant unique predictor of socio\u2010emotional functioning (\n                      <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u00a0=\u00a00.23).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions and Implications<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study demonstrates that adolescents with DLD experience more difficulties in receptive language, cognitive ToM, and socio\u2010emotional functioning compared to their TD peers. Moreover, cognitive ToM appears to be a key predictor of socio\u2010emotional functioning across adolescents with and without DLD. Clinical and educational services should therefore extend support beyond language remediation and consider targeted interventions that strengthen cognitive ToM to improve socio\u2010emotional adjustment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>What is already known on this subject<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Adolescents with developmental language disorders (DLDs) experience significant socio\u2010emotional difficulties, including higher levels of anxiety, depression, and peer victimization. Research highlights the role of cognitive factors, such as Theory of Mind (ToM) and executive functioning (EF), in socio\u2010emotional development, but studies specifically focusing on these constructs in DLD are limited. Language difficulties alone do not fully explain the socio\u2010emotional challenges, indicating that underlying cognitive deficits might play a key role.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                      <jats:italic>What this study adds to the existing knowledge<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>This study examines the relationship between language abilities, ToM, EF, and socio\u2010emotional functioning in adolescents with DLD. It explores how these cognitive factors uniquely contribute to socio\u2010emotional problems, providing a deeper understanding of the mechanisms at play in this population.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                      <jats:italic>What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>This study highlights the need for individualized interventions for adolescents with DLD, given the significant variability in cognitive profiles and socio\u2010emotional functioning within this group. The findings suggest that cognitive factors, particularly ToM, may play a crucial role in predicting socio\u2010emotional difficulties, emphasizing the importance of targeting these areas in therapeutic interventions. Additionally, the lack of significant correlations between receptive language and socio\u2010emotional functioning suggests that both receptive and expressive language should be assessed to develop more comprehensive interventions aimed at improving social skills and emotional regulation.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.70168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T04:39:47Z","timestamp":1766032787000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Interplay Between Language, Executive Functioning, Theory of Mind and Socio\u2010Emotional Functioning \u2013 A Comparison Between Adolescents With and Without DLD"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"61","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8148-7145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elke","family":"Arts","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioural Science Institute Radboud University  Nijmegen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bram O. 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