{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T17:03:00Z","timestamp":1781715780736,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,17]],"date-time":"2022-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645056000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["enviromicro-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Environmental Microbiology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Infections by the pathogenic gut bacterium\n                    <jats:italic>Clostridioides difficile<\/jats:italic>\n                    cause severe diarrhoeas up to a toxic megacolon and are currently among the major causes of lethal bacterial infections. Successful bacterial propagation in the gut is strongly associated with the adaptation to changing nutrition\u2010caused environmental conditions; e.g. environmental salt stresses. Concentrations of 350\u2009mM NaCl, the prevailing salinity in the colon, led to significantly reduced growth of\n                    <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>difficile<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Metabolomics of salt\u2010stressed bacteria revealed a major reduction of the central energy generation pathways, including the Stickland\u2010fermentation reactions. No obvious synthesis of compatible solutes was observed up to 24\u2009h of growth. The ensuing limited tolerance to high salinity and absence of compatible solute synthesis might result from an evolutionary adaptation to the exclusive life of\n                    <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>difficile<\/jats:italic>\n                    in the mammalian gut. Addition of the compatible solutes carnitine, glycine\u2010betaine, \u03b3\u2010butyrobetaine, crotonobetaine, homobetaine, proline\u2010betaine and dimethylsulfoniopropionate restored growth (choline and proline failed) under conditions of high salinity. A bioinformatically identified OpuF\u2010type ABC\u2010transporter imported most of the used compatible solutes. A long\u2010term adaptation after 48\u2009h included a shift of the Stickland fermentation\u2010based energy metabolism from the utilization to the accumulation of\n                    <jats:sc>l<\/jats:sc>\n                    \u2010proline and resulted in restored growth. Surprisingly, salt stress resulted in the formation of coccoid\n                    <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>difficile<\/jats:italic>\n                    cells instead of the typical rod\u2010shaped cells, a process reverted by the addition of several compatible solutes. Hence, compatible solute import via OpuF is the major immediate adaptation strategy of\n                    <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>difficile<\/jats:italic>\n                    to high salinity\u2010incurred cellular stress.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.15925","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]],"date-time":"2022-02-02T02:50:17Z","timestamp":1643770217000},"page":"1499-1517","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Cellular adaptation of\n                    <i>Clostridioides difficile<\/i>\n                    to high salinity encompasses a compatible solute\u2010responsive change in cell morphology"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Annika\u2010Marisa","family":"Michel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universit\u00e4t 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