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The relationship among insects, bacterial pathogens and diseases is complex and depends on the specificity of the pathogens. Some clostridial species produce botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), which is responsible for paralytic botulism. However, the ecology of these bacterial species and their non\u2010toxinogenic phylogenetic counterparts remains unclear. This study specifically explored\n                    <jats:italic>in silico<\/jats:italic>\n                    evidence of the interconnection between BoNT\u2010producing\n                    <jats:italic>Clostridia<\/jats:italic>\n                    and their non\u2010toxinogenic counterparts with insects. Based on literature meta\u2010analysis, the mining of 16S rRNA amplicon and metagenomic sequencing datasets and a pilot feeding experiment in the Glanville fritillary butterfly,\n                    <jats:italic>Melitaea cinxia<\/jats:italic>\n                    , we propose that BoNT\u2010producing\n                    <jats:italic>Clostridia<\/jats:italic>\n                    and their non\u2010toxinogenic phylogenetic counterparts are carried internally and\/or externally in different insect orders. While previous case studies have indicated associations between\n                    <jats:italic>Clostridia<\/jats:italic>\n                    and insects, this work provides a more comprehensive view of their occurrence. It also highlights the need for further multidisciplinary investigations to characterise the natural ecology of BoNT\u2010producing\n                    <jats:italic>Clostridia<\/jats:italic>\n                    and their non\u2010toxinogenic counterparts in insects.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.70053","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,14]],"date-time":"2025-02-14T00:00:12Z","timestamp":1739491212000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Insects as Natural Hosts, Vectors and Reservoirs of Botulinum Neurotoxin\u2010Producing\n                    <i>Clostridia<\/i>\n                    and Their Non\u2010Toxinogenic Counterparts: Preliminary Evidence"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7201-6907","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fran\u00e7ois P.","family":"Douillard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivia","family":"Lanzoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Duplouy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Life Science (HiLIFE) University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"},{"name":"Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miia","family":"Lindstr\u00f6m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"},{"name":"Institute for Life Science (HiLIFE) University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0002836"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anaerobe.2014.01.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12197"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btu170"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0209-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2014.09.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12050306"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.f.303"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evw017"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10732-w"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evz096"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2016.08.023"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00805-09"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13099\u2010024\u201000614\u2010y"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2018.02.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.4595"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btr381"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1312875"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2015.04.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix846"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","first-page":"143","article-title":"Vector Potential of Hospital Houseflies With Special Reference to Klebsiella Species","volume":"109","author":"Fotedar R.","year":"1992","journal-title":"Epidemiology and Infection"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1744-7917.12353"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13028-014-0065-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-7-66"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Botulinum Neurotoxins","author":"Hill K. 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