{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T10:41:14Z","timestamp":1774262474634,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,13]],"date-time":"2018-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1523577600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008455","name":"Medical School, University of Michigan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008455","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Milbank Quarterly"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:label\/><jats:p><jats:boxed-text content-type=\"box\" position=\"anchor\"><jats:caption><jats:title>Policy Points:<\/jats:title><\/jats:caption><jats:p><jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>While most scholarship regarding the US Public Health Service's STD experiments in Guatemala during the 1940s has focused on the intentional exposure experiments, secondary research was also conducted on biospecimens collected from these subjects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>These biospecimen experiments continued after the Guatemala grant ended, and the specimens were used in conjunction with those from the Tuskegee syphilis experiments for ongoing research.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>We argue there should be a public accounting of whether there are still biospecimens from the Guatemala and Tuskegee experiments held in US government biorepositories today. If such specimens exist, they should be retired from US government research archives because they were collected unethically as understood at the time.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list><\/jats:p><\/jats:boxed-text><\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Context<\/jats:title><jats:p>The US Public Health Service's Guatemala STD experiments (1946\u20101948) included intentional exposure to pathogens and testing of postexposure prophylaxis methods for syphilis, gonorrhea, and chancroid in over 1,300 soldiers, commercial sex workers, prison inmates, and psychiatric patients. Though the experiments had officially ended, the biospecimens collected from these subjects continued to be used for research at least into the 1950s.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We analyzed historical documents\u2014including clinical and laboratory records, correspondence, final reports, and medical records\u2014for information relevant to these biospecimen experiments from the US National Archives. In addition, we researched material from past governmental investigations into the Guatemala STD experiments, including those of the US Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues and the Guatemalan Comisi\u00f3n Presidencial para el Esclarecimiento de los Experimentos Practicados con Humanos en Guatemala.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p>Identified spinal fluid, blood specimens, and tissue collected during the Guatemala diagnostic methodology and intentional exposure experiments were subsequently distributed to laboratories throughout the United States for use in ongoing research until at least 1957. Five psychiatric patient subjects involved in these biospecimen experiments died soon after experimental exposure to STDs. The same US government researchers working with the Guatemala biospecimens after the exposure experiments ended were also working with specimens taken from the Tuskegee syphilis study.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>There should be a complete public accounting of whether biospecimens from the Guatemala and Tuskegee experiments are held in US government biorepositories today. If they still exist, these specimens should be retired from such biorepositories and their future disposition determined by stakeholders, including representatives from the communities from which they were derived.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.12318","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,13]],"date-time":"2018-04-13T09:24:06Z","timestamp":1523611446000},"page":"244-271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["From <i>in vivo<\/i> to <i>in vitro<\/i>: How the Guatemala STD Experiments Transformed Bodies Into Biospecimens"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"96","author":[{"given":"KAYTE","family":"SPECTOR\u2010BAGDADY","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Bioethics and Social Sciences in Medicine University of Michigan Medical School"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"PAUL A.","family":"LOMBARDO","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Law, Health and Society Georgia State University College of Law"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_5_2_1","volume-title":"Procurement of Unstained Sections","author":"Cutler J","year":"1957"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0898030610000291"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1951.s1-31.617"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_5_1","volume-title":"\u201cEthically Impossible\u201d: STD Research in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948","author":"Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_6_1","unstructured":"MagnusonHJtoMcGavranEG. 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