{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T07:13:15Z","timestamp":1792048395586,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764028800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764028800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U01\u2010MH129968"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01\u2010MH129968"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Milbank Quarterly"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:label\/>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:boxed-text content-type=\"box\" position=\"anchor\">\n                        <jats:caption>\n                          <jats:title>Policy Points<\/jats:title>\n                        <\/jats:caption>\n                        <jats:p>\n                          <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>In 2021, young adults without children became (temporarily) newly eligible for the earned income tax credit, the largest US poverty alleviation program.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>This 2021 expansion was associated with fewer poor mental health days and modest improvements in physical health.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>This study suggests the importance of providing economic support for young adults at this critical juncture of the life course, when they are ineligible for many other social safety net benefits.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                          <\/jats:list>\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:boxed-text>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Context<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 2021, Congress expanded the earned income tax credit (EITC)\u2014the largest US poverty alleviation program\u2014to young adults without children who had previously been ineligible. The EITC improves health by targeting poverty as a social determinant of health, but no studies have examined health effects of the 2021 expansion on this newly eligible population during this critical period of their life span. This study addresses this gap in the literature.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We used 2021\u20102023 serial cross\u2010sectional data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 11,137), restricting the analysis to low\u2010income young adults without children. We used quasi\u2010experimental difference\u2010in\u2010differences and event study models to evaluate the impact of the EITC expansion on self\u2010reported health and health behaviors. We considered (newly eligible) young adults aged 18 to 24 years without children to be exposed and those aged 25 to 34 years (already eligible) to be unexposed. We compared those interviewed during the EITC expansion to those interviewed before the expansion and after its expiration. Outcomes included mental and physical health in the past 30 days and binge drinking. Models were adjusted for self\u2010reported demographic covariates and month and state fixed effects. We carried out numerous sensitivity analyses.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In difference\u2010in\u2010differences models, the 2021 EITC expansion was associated with fewer poor mental health days (\u22121.08; 95% CI \u22121.94 to \u22120.23). Event study models confirmed this and also demonstrated modest improvements in physical health. There were no effects on binge drinking. Effects were similar among various subgroups (i.e., sex, race\/ethnicity). Results were robust to sensitivity analyses.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Expanding the EITC improved the health and well\u2010being of young adults without children, a group often left out of US safety net programs during this key juncture of the life course. This study informs ongoing decisions regarding EITC policy design at the state and federal levels.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.70060","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T16:04:08Z","timestamp":1764086648000},"page":"1183-1203","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Health Effects of the 2021 Earned Income Tax Credit Expansion on Young Adults Without Children"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"103","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2191-2925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"ABDINASIR K.","family":"ALI","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Harvard University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0899-0200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"EMILY C.","family":"DORE","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Harvard University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0730-4077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"RITA","family":"HAMAD","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Harvard University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2019.102390"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","unstructured":"HawkinsJ.The rise of young adult poverty in the US.Berkeley Institute for Young Americans.2019. Accessed September 1 2025.gspp.berkeley.edu\/assets\/uploads\/page\/poverty_FINAL_formatted.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","unstructured":"BialikK FryR.Millennial life: how young adulthood today compares with prior generations.Pew Research Center. February 14 2019. Accessed September 1 2025.pewresearch.org\/social\u2010trends\/2019\/02\/14\/millennial\u2010life\u2010how\u2010young\u2010adulthood\u2010today\u2010compares\u2010with\u2010prior\u2010generations\u20102\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716210393694"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","unstructured":"Internal Revenue Service. EITC reports and statistics. IRS.gov.2025. Accessed September 1 2025.irs.gov\/credits\u2010deductions\/individuals\/earned\u2010income\u2010tax\u2010credit\/eitc\u2010reports\u2010and\u2010statistics"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","unstructured":"USDA Food and Nutrition Service.SNAP work requirements.US Department of Agriculture.2025. Accessed September 1 2025.fns.usda.gov\/snap\/work\u2010requirements"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","unstructured":"Internal Revenue Service.Who qualifies for the earned income tax credit (EITC). IRS.gov.2024. Accessed September 1 2025.irs.gov\/credits\u2010deductions\/individuals\/earned\u2010income\u2010tax\u2010credit\/who\u2010qualifies\u2010for\u2010the\u2010earned\u2010income\u2010tax\u2010credit\u2010eitc"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","unstructured":"Internal Revenue Service.Child Tax Credit: who qualifies. IRS.gov.2024. Accessed September 1 2025.irs.gov\/credits\u2010deductions\/individuals\/child\u2010tax\u2010credit"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","volume-title":"Characteristics and financial circumstances of TANF recipients, fiscal year 2022","author":"Office of Family Assistance","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Unemployment rises in 2020, as the country battles the COVID\u201019 pandemic","volume":"144","author":"Smith SM","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mon Labor Rev"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2020.08.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000690"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.06.036"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.04.054"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469\u2010021\u201000604\u20100"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.54718"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjz015"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/pandp.20191046"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.4226"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","unstructured":"Crandall\u2010HollickML.The \u201cChildless\u201d EITC: Temporary Expansion for 2021 Under the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (ARPA; PL 1117\u20102).Congressional Research Service;2021."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","unstructured":"MarrC CoxK CalameS HingtgenS FentonG ShermanA.Year\u2010end tax policy priority: expand the child tax credit for the 19 million children who receive less than the full credit.Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. December 7 2022. Accessed September 1 2025.cbpp.org\/research\/federal\u2010tax\/year\u2010end\u2010tax\u2010policy\u2010priority\u2010expand\u2010the\u2010child\u2010tax\u2010credit\u2010for\u2010the\u201019\u2010million"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","volume-title":"The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): An Economic Analysis","author":"Crandall\u2010Hollick ML","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","unstructured":"Internal Revenue Service.EITC fast facts. IRS.gov.2025. Accessed September 1 2025.eitc.irs.gov\/partner\u2010toolkit\/basic\u2010marketing\u2010communication\u2010materials\/eitc\u2010fast\u2010facts\/eitc\u2010fast\u2010facts"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jech\u20102020\u2010214841"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2015.11.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.6.2.258"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwy179"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1091142116654965"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2021.02.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhealeco.2020.102372"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2020.106223"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1468\u20100009.12675"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3386\/w32571"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2025.308219"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_36_1","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About the data: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. CDC.gov.2025. Accessed September 1 2025.cdc.gov\/vision\u2010health\u2010data\/data\u2010sources\/about\u2010the\u2010data\u2010behavioral\u2010risk\u2010factor\u2010surveillance\u2010system.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6936a2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_38_1","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Measuring healthy days: population assessment of health\u2010related quality of life (HRQOL). CDC.gov.2000. Accessed September 1 2025. archive.cdc.gov\/#\/details?url=https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hrqol\/pdfs\/mhd.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_39_1","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Calculated Variables in the 2021 data file of the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. CDC.gov.2022. Accessed September 1 2025.cdc.gov\/brfss\/annual_data\/2021\/pdf\/2021\u2010calculated\u2010variables\u2010version4\u2010508.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_40_1","unstructured":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Alcohol's effects on health: research\u2010based information on drinking and its impact.National Institutes of Health.2023. Accessed September 1 2025.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohols\u2010effects\u2010health"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.5.2.188"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyu172"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001755"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475\u20106773.2011.01314.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2022.04.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2022.00713"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2022.00733"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980024001447"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2023.01566"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2022.00730"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966\u2010018\u20100647\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105315609087"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2020.05.038"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.4501"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.whi.2021.09.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.20120179"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/tpe.20.20061905"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19052747"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_59_1","unstructured":"WilliamsE WaxmanS LegendreJ.State earned income tax credits and minimum wages work best together.Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.2020. Accessed September 1 2025.cbpp.org\/sites\/default\/files\/atoms\/files\/7\u201012\u201006sfp.pdf"}],"container-title":["The Milbank Quarterly"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/1468-0009.70060","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/1468-0009.70060","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/1468-0009.70060","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T15:49:33Z","timestamp":1791474573000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/1468-0009.70060"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/1468-0009.70060"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1468-0009.70060","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0887-378X","1468-0009"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0887-378X","type":"print"},{"value":"1468-0009","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-03-26","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-09-25","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-11-25","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}