{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T08:28:29Z","timestamp":1786696109848,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786665600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Milbank Quarterly"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:label\/>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:boxed-text content-type=\"box\" position=\"anchor\">\n                        <jats:caption>\n                          <jats:title>Policy Points<\/jats:title>\n                        <\/jats:caption>\n                        <jats:p>\n                          <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>\n                                <jats:bold>\n                                  <jats:italic>Position Universal, High\u2010Quality Education as a Foundational Public Health Strategy<\/jats:italic>\n                                <\/jats:bold>\n                                . Long\u2010term health and life expectancy in the United States are shaped more by educational attainment than by any other single factor. Disparities in access to early childhood, K\u201012, and higher education perpetuate cycles of chronic disease, economic hardship, and shortened lifespan, particularly in marginalized communities. Policymakers must recognize education as a critical public health intervention and commit to providing universal access to high\u2010quality education at every stage of life. This transformation requires shifting the focus from mere per\u2010pupil spending toward the national scaling of high\u2010impact instructional models, such as intensive, high\u2010dosage tutoring and adaptive learning. Leveraging generative AI to provide personalized, real\u2010time instruction tailored to individual student needs is essential to bridge the achievement gap at scale. Furthermore, achieving true educational equity requires decoupling school quality from local property taxes, integrating health literacy and nutrition into curricula, and ensuring higher education remains affordable and accessible for all.\n                              <\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>\n                                <jats:bold>\n                                  <jats:italic>Transform the Food and Built Environment to Advance National Metabolic Resilience<\/jats:italic>\n                                <\/jats:bold>\n                                . The structure of America's food system and built environment directly fuels the escalating burden of obesity, diabetes, and related chronic diseases. Federal and state policies must fundamentally shift agricultural subsidies away from calorie\u2010dense, nutrient\u2010poor commodities toward specialty crops and fresh produce. To ensure these healthy choices are the default for every household, the federal government must finalize and enforce mandatory, interpretive front\u2010of\u2010package warning labels for ultra\u2010processed foods. This shift, designed to move beyond the passive Nutrition Facts panel, will provide at\u2010a\u2010glance transparency and incentivize industrywide reformulation. Furthermore, metabolic health must be integrated into the K\u201012 experience through mandatory daily high\u2010intensity physical activity to improve cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive performance and minimally processed school meals. Finally, investments in active transportation infrastructure, including pedestrian greenways and safe routes to school, are essential to encourage movement as a default, closing the \u201cconvenience gap\u201d that disproportionately burdens low\u2010income and rural Americans.\n                              <\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>\n                                <jats:bold>\n                                  <jats:italic>Normalize Chronic Obesity Management<\/jats:italic>\n                                <\/jats:bold>\n                                . Acknowledging that no nation has successfully reversed the obesity epidemic through behavioral advice alone, the United States must treat obesity as a chronic biological condition rather than a temporary lifestyle lapse. It is imperative that public and private payers guarantee universal, affordable access to evidence\u2010based treatments, including next\u2010generation pharmacotherapies (such as GLP\u20101 receptor agonists). These clinical strategies must be coupled with a modernized, real\u2010time health data infrastructure to monitor outcomes and ensure equitable access at the neighborhood level.\n                              <\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                          <\/jats:list>\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:boxed-text>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Context<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Over the past three decades, mortality from leading causes such as cardiovascular disease and cancer has declined in the United States, but the burden of chronic, disabling conditions, including musculoskeletal disorders, mental and substance use disorders, and obesity, has grown or stagnated, widening the gap between total years lived and years lived in good health. These shifts are accompanied by persistent and widening inequities in longevity by geography, race\/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This analysis draws on the 2023 Global Burden of Disease Study, which estimates mortality, disability, and risk factor burden for 375 diseases and 88 risk factors nationally and at the state level, combined with findings from the US Health Disparities project. The latter uses small\u2010area estimation to evaluate county\u2010level life expectancy and mortality across five racial\/ethnic groups and four educational strata, and the \u201cTen Americas\u201d framework, which stratifies the population by race\/ethnicity, geography, and socioeconomic context.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 2023, US life expectancy reached 78.5 years and healthy life expectancy 64.5 years, both still below prepandemic 2019 levels, with a persistent 13\u201014\u2010year gap between life expectancy and healthy life expectancy. Ischemic heart disease remained the leading cause of death, but drug use disorders rose from the 26th to the leading cause of disability, a 562% increase since 1990, while Alzheimer disease and musculoskeletal disorders also climbed in rank. High systolic blood pressure remained the top mortality risk factor despite a large decline, while high body mass index and high fasting plasma glucose burdens grew substantially. State\u2010level disparities widened, with West Virginia and Mississippi trailing Hawaii by wide and increasing margins. Life expectancy gaps by race\/ethnicity, education, and place were large and growing, reaching 20.4 years across the \u201cTen Americas\u201d by 2021, with county\u2010level life expectancy spanning more than 27 years nationally.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>US health trends reflect a shift from fatal to disabling disease, driven substantially by the obesity\/metabolic and substance use epidemics, layered onto deep and widening structural inequities by race\/ethnicity, place, and education. Reversing these trends requires a multidimensional policy agenda spanning universal, high\u2010quality education; reform of the food and built environment; normalized clinical management of obesity; expanded, integrated substance use and mental health treatment; and modernized, real\u2010time public health data infrastructure.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.70109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T07:46:45Z","timestamp":1786693605000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chronic Disease and Disability in the United States: Trends, Inequities, and Imperatives for Policy Reform"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"given":"ALI H.","family":"MOKDAD","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"LAURA","family":"DWYER\u2010LINDGREN","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"CHRISTOPHER J.L.","family":"MURRAY","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_28_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(24)01446\u20106"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(24)02246\u20103"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(24)02372\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01495-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(24)01757\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lana.2025.101064"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(23)01088\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(22)00876\u20105"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc24\u20102259"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468\u20102667(24)00131\u20102"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468\u20102667(24)00002\u20101"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202504\u2010398OC"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690\u2010025\u201001688\u2010z"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.282.16.1519"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.284.13.1650"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(24)01548\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(25)00355\u20101"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2025.26817"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468\u20102667(20)30203\u20106"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.289.1.76"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.9.1278"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.291.10.1238"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(25)01330\u20103"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(25)01917\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(25)01637\u2010X"},{"key":"e_1_2_28_27_1","unstructured":"Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation.Global Burden of Diseases Injuries and Risk Factors Study (GBD) Protocol. 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