{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T14:11:41Z","timestamp":1789135901268,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789084800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789084800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Milbank Quarterly"],"abstract":"\n \n \n \n \n Policy Points<\/jats:title>\n <\/jats:caption>\n \n \n \n Canada and the United States have not failed for want of accountability mechanisms in health governance. They have failed because accountability is repeatedly invoked where attribution and answerability are not already standing, so the result is the punishment of visible individuals rather than structural correction.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n \n The corrective is to restore the order of dependency: first name which institution is responsible for an outcome, then require it to report against a benchmarked standard set in advance, and only then attach consequences. Applied in this order, the framework transfers to any federated system in which central funding flows without binding accountability for results.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n \n Structural correctives require independent oversight bodies whose mandate, funding, and membership are insulated from the institutions they regulate; proactive mandatory reporting against pre\u2010set standards; and explicit attribution of population\u2010level outcomes to named institutional responsibilities.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n <\/jats:list>\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:boxed-text>\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Context<\/jats:title>\n Canada and the United States have pursued health\u2010system accountability for decades through inquiries, commissions, and public reporting, yet the same governance failures recur. This Perspective argues that accountability has repeatedly been reached for before the conditions that make it coherent were in place.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n The paper develops a conceptual framework, the fiduciary circuit. The analysis draws on inquest and commission records, the safety\u2010science and governance literature, and illustrative program\u2010 and system\u2010level cases from cardiac care and intergovernmental health financing in Canada and the United States.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Findings<\/jats:title>\n Attribution, answerability, and accountability stand in a relation of logical dependency rather than temporal sequence: accountability is incoherent unless responsibility has first been assigned and answerability secured. Where the circuit is closed, as in Manitoba's CODE STEMI program for acute heart\u2010attack care, outcomes improve; where it is entered at accountability after a failure, as in federal\u2010provincial transfers, it produces the scapegoating of visible individuals while structural conditions persist. The recurring signature is that improvement which is not structurally protected is not retained.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n The corrective is not another comprehensive reform but Popperian piecemeal engineering paired with independent statutory bodies whose mandate, funding, and membership are insulated from the institutions they regulate. Naming who is responsible, requiring them to answer against standards set in advance, and only then holding them to account is the order the fiduciary tradition has always demanded.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.70126","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T13:51:08Z","timestamp":1789134668000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Inverted Circuit: Attribution, Answerability, and Accountability in Canadian Health Governance"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"given":"ALAN H.","family":"MENKIS","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Manitoba"},{"name":"formerly Winnipeg Regional Health Authority and St. Boniface Hospital and Health Sciences Centre"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","volume-title":"To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System","author":"Kohn LT","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","volume-title":"Crossing the Quality Chasm: a New Health System for the 21st Century","author":"Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Quality of Health Care in America","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PTS.0b013e3182948a69"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","volume-title":"The 100,000 Lives Campaign and the 5 Million Lives Campaign","author":"Institute for Healthcare Improvement","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139062367","volume-title":"Human Error","author":"Reason J","year":"1990"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","volume-title":"Attribution: Principles and Approaches","author":"National Quality Forum","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198012253032604"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","volume-title":"Ethics","author":"Spinoza B","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3348969"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","volume-title":"Creating Value\u2010Based Competition on Results","author":"Porter ME","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1914185"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0167\u20102681(80)90051\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","volume-title":"Skin in the Game: Hidden Asymmetries in Everyday Life","author":"Taleb NN","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","volume-title":"The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky Technology, Culture, and Deviance at NASA","author":"Vaughan D","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","volume-title":"The Prince","author":"Machiavelli N","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199705223362106"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2011.12.051"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCOUTCOMES.113.000506"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3350429"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","unstructured":"LevineE MalaniR OddenA SchulzJ.Ensuring the financial sustainability of academic medical centers.McKinsey & Company. 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