{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T06:39:24Z","timestamp":1792651164235,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Forensic Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Polymer receivers fabricated by fused filament fabrication (FFF) are increasingly encountered in forensic casework; however, their firing\u2010cycle behavior and the stability of associated ballistic toolmarks remain poorly understood. In this study, Ruger 10\/22\u2010pattern FFF\u2010printed receivers produced from polylactic acid (PLA) were evaluated under controlled indoor shooting range conditions alongside a factory\u2010produced aluminum receiver using identical trigger, bolt, and barrel components. Fired cartridge\u2010case first\u2010impact coordinates were recorded in three dimensions to quantify ejection dispersion and to estimate relative bolt kinetic energy, using the mean ejection distance as a conservative proxy. Under the improvised barrel\u2010retention configuration used in this study, the FFF\u2010printed receivers produced shorter and more variable fired cartridge\u2010case ejection ranges than the factory reference, corresponding to approximately 46%\u201357% of the factory receiver's relative bolt kinetic energy, depending on ammunition type and reference condition. This observation was consistent with greater sensitivity to assembly\u2010dependent factors, including headspace\u2010related variation and barrel retention instability, and with reduced bolt acceleration. To examine systematic changes in toolmark stability under conditions of reduced barrel\u2010to\u2010receiver rigidity relevant to improvised privately manufactured firearm (PMF) assembly practices documented in forensic submissions, an unsecured\u2010barrel configuration was used. Under this configuration, sequential firing produced progressive changes in ballistic toolmark expression: chamber\u2010contact regions diminished and shifted over short firing sequences, and firing\u2010pin impression footprints were consistently smaller and less distinct than those produced by the factory reference receiver. These findings provide practical insights for the forensic interpretation of fired cartridge\u2010case toolmark patterns, operability assessment, and evaluation of toolmark reliability in PMFs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.70430","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T05:50:52Z","timestamp":1790401852000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Firing cycle dynamics and forensic interpretation of\n                    <scp>3D<\/scp>\n                    \u2010printed Ruger 10\/22\u2010pattern .22\n                    <scp>LR<\/scp>\n                    rifle receivers during live fire"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1810-940X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaojiang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Firearms Examination Unit, Forensic Sciences Branch Edmonton Police Service  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