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However, melanic alleles may have significant\/subtle pleiotrophic \u201ccosts.\u201d Several potential pleiotrophic effects of the W (=Y)\u2010linked melanism gene in\n                    <jats:italic>Papilio glaucus<\/jats:italic>\n                    L. (Lepidoptera) showed no costs for melanic versus yellow in adult size, oviposition preferences, fecundity, egg viability, larval survival\/growth rates, cold stress tolerance, or postdiapause emergence times. Sexual selection (males choosing yellow rather than mimetic dark females) had been suggested to provide a balanced polymorphism in\n                    <jats:italic>P. glaucus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , but spermatophore counts in wild females and direct field tethering studies of size\u2010matched pairs of virgin females (dark and yellow), show that male preferences are random or frequency\u2010dependent from Florida to Michigan, providing no yellow counter\u2010advantages. Recent frequency declines of dark (melanic\/mimetic) females in\n                    <jats:italic>P. glaucus<\/jats:italic>\n                    populations are shown in several major populations from Florida (27.3\u00b0N latitude) to Ohio (38.5\u00b0 N). Summer temperatures have increased significantly at all these locations during this time (1999\u20132018), but whether dark morphs may be more vulnerable (in any stage) to such climate warming remains to be determined. Additional potential reasons for the frequency declines in mimetic females are discussed: (i) genetic introgression of Z\u2010linked melanism suppressor genes from\n                    <jats:italic>P. canadensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    (R &amp; J) and the hybrid species,\n                    <jats:italic>P. appalachiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    (Pavulaan &amp; Wright), (ii) differential developmental incompatibilities, or Haldane effects, known to occur in hybrids, (iii) selection against intermediately melanic (\u201cdusty\u201d) females (with the W\u2010linked melanic gene, b+) which higher temperatures can cause.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1744-7917.12653","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]],"date-time":"2018-11-20T02:35:12Z","timestamp":1542681312000},"page":"583-612","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Assessing ecological and physiological costs of melanism in North American\n                    <i>Papilio glaucus<\/i>\n                    females: two decades of dark morph frequency declines"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7041-9005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. 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