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Zool."],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Individual identification and tracking of leopards (\n                    <jats:italic>Panthera pardus<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) are critical for conserving wild populations and understanding their behavioral ecology. Current methods primarily rely on manual coat pattern matching, which is inefficient for large datasets and makes it difficult to identify subadults undergoing growth\u2010related pattern changes. Moreover, individual\u2010based studies on the movement ecology of wild North China leopards (\n                    <jats:italic>Panthera pardus japonensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) remain scarce. To address these challenges, we propose\n                    <jats:bold>LeoNet<\/jats:bold>\n                    , a lightweight hybrid deep learning model integrating convolutional neural networks and multilayer perceptrons for individual leopard identification. Using 42 868 images collected from 142 captive and wild felids,\n                    <jats:bold>LeoNet<\/jats:bold>\n                    outperformed most of the 11 models in adult identification (best accuracy, 97.42%) and performed robustly in cub identification (95.24%) and the stranger test (96.28%). By applying\n                    <jats:bold>LeoNet<\/jats:bold>\n                    to camera trap data from the Taihang Mountains in Henan, we identified 41 wild individuals, reconstructed their movement trajectories, estimated individual home ranges (1.63\u201329.09 km\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    ), and analyzed inter\u2010individual social relationships based on behavior over the 2017\u20132024 monitoring period. Significant sex\u2010based differences in social behavior were detected, with females recorded in a higher proportion of co\u2010appearance events in Jiyuan (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.01) and males in Jiaozuo (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.05). These findings revealed three spatially separated groups, extensive home range overlap, and pronounced habitat fragmentation associated with anthropogenic infrastructure. This study introduces a computationally efficient model and an integrated framework for long\u2010term monitoring and ecological analysis of solitary carnivores, providing individual\u2010level records and ecological insights for evidence\u2010based conservation of the endangered North China leopard.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1749-4877.70210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T17:17:30Z","timestamp":1791479850000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Lightweight Deep Neural Network for Individual Leopard Identification: Supporting Movement Ecology in the Taihang Mountains of Henan"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4028-6453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Science, The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guoqing","family":"Shangguan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer and Information Engineering Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Science, The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fuming","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Science, The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhishu","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Biodiversity Conservation and Integrated Pest Management, Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingliang","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Biodiversity Conservation and Integrated Pest Management, Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuo","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Science, The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junzhan","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiyuan Conservation Center of Taihangshan National Macaque Nature Reserve  Jiyuan Henan China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingfeng","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiyuan Conservation Center of Taihangshan National Macaque Nature Reserve  Jiyuan Henan China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunlong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiyuan Conservation Center of Taihangshan National Macaque Nature Reserve  Jiyuan Henan China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianping","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiaozuo Nature Reserve and Wildlife Conservation Center  Jiaozuo Henan China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiaozuo Nature Reserve and Wildlife Conservation Center  Jiaozuo Henan China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3903-3173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hualei","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer and Information Engineering Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaohong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Science, The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.13684","article-title":"Multiple Spatial Behaviours Govern Social Network Positions in a Wild Ungulate","volume":"24","author":"Albery G. 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