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Zool."],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The cognitive benefits of having a large brain must outweigh its substantial energetic demands for such an organ to evolve. The cognitive buffer hypothesis proposes that large brains facilitate survival in complex environments via flexible behaviors. Because active predator evasion is likely more cognitively demanding than a cryptic lifestyle, we reasoned that the evolution of crypsis could relax selection on brain size. To test this hypothesis, we examined the effect of dorsal crypsis, ventral crypsis, and granular glands on relative total brain evolution in eight toad species. As predicted, total relative brain size was negatively associated with dorsal crypsis across species, but was not related to either the volume or the count of granular glands. Additionally, because certain brain regions may be specifically involved in predator evasion, we assessed relationships between five major brain region sizes and both dorsal crypsis and granular gland traits. Only the olfactory nerves and telencephalon showed negative associations with dorsal crypsis, whereas optic tectum volume correlated positively with granular gland volume. These regions support complex evasion strategies. Our findings indicate that increased dorsal crypsis relaxes selection on cognitively demanding evasion, leading to smaller brains. Thus, crypsis evolution is a previously underexplored factor in vertebrate brain anatomy evolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/1749-4877.70225","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T14:22:01Z","timestamp":1792765321000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Dorsal Crypsis and Chemical Defense Jointly Shape Brain Size in Toads"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"given":"Hong","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Integrative Science Center of Germplasm Creation in Western China (Chongqing) Science City, Chongqing Innovation Center for Biotechnology in Breeding, School of Life Sciences Southwest University  Chongqing China"},{"name":"Provincial Grassroots Health Development Research Centre, North Sichuan Medical College  Nanchong China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lingsen","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Biodiversity Conservation on the Qinghai\u2010Xizang Plateau, Key Laboratory of Ecological Adaptation in Amphibian in Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Artificial Propagation and Utilization in Anurans of Nanchong City China West Normal University  Nanchong China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Long","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Biodiversity Conservation on the Qinghai\u2010Xizang Plateau, Key Laboratory of Ecological Adaptation in Amphibian in Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Artificial Propagation and Utilization in Anurans of Nanchong City China West Normal University  Nanchong China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5303-4114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenbo","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Biodiversity Conservation on the Qinghai\u2010Xizang Plateau, Key Laboratory of Ecological Adaptation in Amphibian in Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Artificial Propagation and Utilization in Anurans of Nanchong City China West Normal University  Nanchong China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanbo","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Vegetation Structure, Functions and Construction, and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Biological Adaptation, Conservation and Utilization, School of Ecology and Environmental Science Yunnan University  Kunming China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiyong","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Integrative Science Center of Germplasm Creation in Western China (Chongqing) Science City, Chongqing Innovation Center for Biotechnology in Breeding, School of Life Sciences Southwest University  Chongqing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhisheng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Integrative Science Center of Germplasm Creation in Western China (Chongqing) Science City, Chongqing Innovation Center for Biotechnology in Breeding, School of Life Sciences Southwest University  Chongqing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1086\/204350","article-title":"The Expensive\u2010Tissue Hypothesis: The Brain and the Digestive System in Human and Primate Evolution","volume":"36","author":"Aiello L. 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