{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T19:09:51Z","timestamp":1787771391557,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754006400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Brit J Educational Tech"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:label\/>\n                    <jats:p>This study investigates the potential of using ChatGPT as a teachable agent to support students' learning through teaching, specifically in programming education. While learning by teaching (LBT) is an effective pedagogical strategy, traditional teachable agents often struggle with facilitating dynamic, dialogue\u2010based interactions. Our research explored whether ChatGPT, with its advanced conversational capabilities, can effectively support this process. Findings indicate that teaching ChatGPT improved students' knowledge gains and programming abilities, particularly in writing readable and logically sound code. However, its impact on error\u2010correction skills was limited, likely due to ChatGPT's tendency to generate correct code, thus reducing debugging opportunities. Notably, students' self\u2010regulated learning (SRL) abilities improved, suggesting that the act of teaching ChatGPT enhances learners' self\u2010efficacy and SRL strategy implementation. The study discusses how engaging in instructional dialogues with an artificial intelligence (AI) can contribute to the LBT process and explores ChatGPT's specific role in supporting students' SRL. Overall, this research highlights ChatGPT's potential as a teachable agent, offering insights for future research on AI\u2010driven pedagogical tools and their broader implications for education.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:label\/>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:boxed-text content-type=\"box\" position=\"anchor\">\n                        <jats:caption>\n                          <jats:title>Practitioner notes<\/jats:title>\n                        <\/jats:caption>\n                        <jats:p>\n                          What is already known about this topic?\n                          <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>Learning by teaching (LBT) is an effective instructional method that fosters learners' active learning, often within a social context.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>Previous studies have explored the effect of teachable agents as virtual students, but most agents lack support for dynamic, dialogue\u2010based interactions in the LBT process.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>Currently, ChatGPT shows potential to facilitate flexible teaching interactions and allows learners to adapt their teaching strategies. However, the effectiveness of teachable ChatGPT agents remains largely unknown.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                          <\/jats:list>\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                        <jats:p>\n                          What this paper adds?\n                          <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>This study showed that learning with a teachable ChatGPT agent improved learners' knowledge gains, programming abilities and SRL abilities.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>This study also found that teaching a teachable ChatGPT agent did not significantly benefit learners' error\u2010correction abilities.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                          <\/jats:list>\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                        <jats:p>\n                          Implications for practice and\/or policy\n                          <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>Educators can encourage learners to teach or explain concepts to ChatGPT agents through dialogue to promote deeper cognitive processes.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>When designing ChatGPT\u2010based teachable agents in programming education, errors should be carefully designed to ensure that students engage with meaningful and representative programming challenges.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                            <jats:list-item>\n                              <jats:p>Future research should explore how SRL strategies can be better integrated into the interactions between students and ChatGPT\u2010based teachable agents.<\/jats:p>\n                            <\/jats:list-item>\n                          <\/jats:list>\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:boxed-text>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.70001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T10:07:37Z","timestamp":1754042857000},"page":"163-184","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Learning by teaching with\n                    <scp>ChatGPT<\/scp>\n                    : The effect of teachable\n                    <scp>ChatGPT<\/scp>\n                    agent on programming education"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"57","author":[{"given":"Angxuan","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Technology Peking University  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8187-4011","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuang","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lab of Artificial Intelligence for Education East China Normal University  Shanghai China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huixiao","family":"Le","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Technology Peking University  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Technology Tsinghua University  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","first-page":"66","volume-title":"International Conference on Machine Learning, PMLR","author":"Abid A.","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1469787418769120"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3593434.3593468"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2015.1073746"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01663995"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/IRG-2005-15(2)02"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.58459\/rptel.2010.5123-152"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","first-page":"389","volume-title":"Artificial intelligence in education. Citeseer","author":"Biswas G.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-30139-4_69"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society","author":"Biswas G.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08839510590910200"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","first-page":"67","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computers in Education. Asia\u2010Pacific Society for Computers in Education Hong Kong","author":"Biswas G.","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-015-0057-9"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","first-page":"56","article-title":"Pedagogical agents for learning by teaching: Teachable agents","volume":"47","author":"Blair K.","year":"2007","journal-title":"Educational Technology"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1061580031000095470"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2007.02.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10664-023-10381-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2022.111592"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","volume-title":"2009 AAAI Fall Symposium Series","author":"Bredeweg B.","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","article-title":"Language models are few\u2010shot learners","author":"Brown T. B.","year":"2020","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.14165"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-009-9180-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_1","article-title":"Chatcot: Tool\u2010augmented chain\u2010of\u2010thought reasoning on chat\u2010based large language models","author":"Chen Z.","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.14323"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2014.965823"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09500690110095249"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-010-9154-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3579501"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14703297.2016.1156011"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13544"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15228053.2023.2233814"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_10_31_1","first-page":"194","article-title":"Teachable agent improves affect regulation","volume":"24","author":"Han J. H.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Technology & Society"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_32_1","first-page":"75","article-title":"Facilitating mathematical learning with a peer tutoring system: Lessons learned","volume":"22","author":"Jun Y.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_33_1","article-title":"Exploring the intersection of large language models and agent\u2010based modeling via prompt engineering","author":"Junprung E.","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.07411"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3631802.3631806"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3642773"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_36_1","first-page":"39648","article-title":"Language models can solve computer tasks","volume":"36","author":"Kim G.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-015-0055-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031027"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.90.1.134"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-5546-3_29"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0309715"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jpr.12221"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_43_1","article-title":"Better zero\u2010shot reasoning with role\u2010play prompting","author":"Kong A.","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.07702"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000396"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-021-09643-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/IRG-2008-18(3)02"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISEC61299.2024.10664775"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13424"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_49_1","first-page":"23813","article-title":"Swiftsage: A generative agent with fast and slow thinking for complex interactive tasks","volume":"36","author":"Lin B. Y.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metrad.2023.100017"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci13040410"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13562517.2024.2341005"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3573051.3593393"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-021-00265-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/DIGITEL.2012.12"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_56_1","volume-title":"1st APLEC Workshop Proceedings","author":"Matsuda N.","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-13388-6_36"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-93843-1_23"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031955"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_60_1","first-page":"687","volume-title":"The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences","author":"Nasir R.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0273-2297(81)90019-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/PRES_a_00144"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_63_1","first-page":"39","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI'12","author":"Ogan A.","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_64_1","first-page":"27730","article-title":"Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback","volume":"35","author":"Ouyang L.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_65_1","article-title":"MemGPT: Towards LLMs as operating systems","author":"Packer C.","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.08560"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00422"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-014-0018-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21869-9_33"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/978-1-60750-028-5-662"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3586183.3606763"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012109890-2\/50043-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.82.1.33"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164493053003024"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00313830120074206"},{"issue":"8","key":"e_1_2_10_75_1","first-page":"9","article-title":"Language models are unsupervised multitask learners","volume":"1","author":"Radford A.","year":"2019","journal-title":"OpenAI Blog"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654307309920"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2012.11.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3581641.3584037"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_79_1","first-page":"340","volume-title":"Handbook of metacognition in education","author":"Schwartz D. L.","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15391523.2020.1784812"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/nur.21651"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11409-014-9124-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13412"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195161564.003.0003"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-013-0001-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3690652"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_10_87_1","first-page":"62","article-title":"Learning\u2010by\u2010teaching: Designing teachable agents with intrinsic motivation","volume":"15","author":"Zhao G.","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Technology & Society"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_88_1","article-title":"Recurrentgpt: Interactive generation of (arbitrarily) long text","author":"Zhou W.","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.13304"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_89_1","volume-title":"Self\u2010regulation: Theory, research, and applications","author":"Zimmerman B.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15430421tip4102_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_91_1","first-page":"15","volume-title":"Handbook of selfregulation of learning and performance","author":"Zimmerman B. J.","year":"2011"}],"container-title":["British Journal of Educational Technology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/bjet.70001","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/bjet.70001","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/bjet.70001","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,8]],"date-time":"2026-03-08T12:14:27Z","timestamp":1772972067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/bjet.70001"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/bjet.70001"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjet.70001","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0007-1013","1467-8535"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0007-1013","type":"print"},{"value":"1467-8535","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-10-17","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-07-15","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-08-01","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}