{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T13:50:23Z","timestamp":1782222623838,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Transactions in GIS"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Among the various theories of categorization, Eleanor Rosch's\n                    <jats:italic>prototype theory<\/jats:italic>\n                    stands out as both influential and contested. In contrast to the\n                    <jats:italic>classical theory<\/jats:italic>\n                    of concepts, prototype theory posits that humans conceptualize the world using category structures where exemplars vary in their degree of membership. While this theory remains well\u2010regarded among cognitive psychologists as an account of human cognition, we know little about whether artificial agents\u2014particularly large language models (LLMs)\u2014also use a similar type of categorization. Given that these models have shown to mirror human\u2010like cognitive abilities, an important question arises: Do they also encode categories with graded membership? This question also invites a broader ethical reflection: While substantial research has documented a lack of diversity in LLM outputs, few has realized that such bias can be understood as a graded structure in the model's internal representations of categories. In this study, we explore this possibility by examining the geographical conceptualizations of 11 autoregressive LLMs. Guided by prior work that advocated empirical, inductive testing for studying geographic categories, we employ a cognitive\u2010psychology experiment known as\n                    <jats:italic>category production<\/jats:italic>\n                    . It prompts a model to generate exemplars of a given category. This approach yields an extensive list of category norms (i.e., typical items associated with a category) across 297 geographic categories, revealing their graded structures both encoded within individual models and collectively. Notably, we discover a strong presence of prototypical places shared across different sampling temperatures, geographic categories, and models. Furthermore, we observe and explain a lack of geographic diversity in LLM outputs through the lens of prototype theory.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.70242","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T04:31:14Z","timestamp":1774326674000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Golden Gate Bridge, as Always? Eliciting Prototypical Places From Autoregressive Large Language Models via Category Production"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7699-3366","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zilong","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Regional Research University of Vienna  Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1968-887X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Janowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Regional Research University of Vienna  Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2521-8164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mina","family":"Karimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Regional Research University of Vienna  Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6039-7810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meilin","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Regional Research University of Vienna  Vienna Austria"},{"name":"Department of Geography and Planning University of Liverpool  Liverpool UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0834-3791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Majic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Regional Research University of Vienna  Vienna Austria"},{"name":"Institute of Geodesy Graz University of Technology  Graz Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8370-1572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Fortacz\u2010Lazan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Regional Research University of Vienna  Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","article-title":"Gpt\u20104 Technical Report","author":"Achiam J.","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.08774"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0901_7"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-021-01787-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0027577"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3442188.3445922"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2013.50"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","article-title":"On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models","author":"Bommasani R.","year":"2021","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2108.07258"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","first-page":"1877","article-title":"Language Models Are Few\u2010Shot Learners","volume":"33","author":"Brown T.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_10_1","first-page":"9076","volume-title":"International Conference on Machine Learning","author":"Coda\u2010Forno J.","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","volume-title":"Cultural Norms for Verbal Items in 43 Categories","author":"Cohen B. 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