{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T12:29:55Z","timestamp":1766579395507},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,16]],"date-time":"2016-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1481846400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Buffalo Beach Company"},{"name":"International Center on Alcohol Policies"},{"name":"International Alliance for Responsible Drinking"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Alcoholism Clin &amp;amp; Exp Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Unrecorded traditional distilled spirits (<jats:italic>bai jiu<\/jats:italic>, \u767d\u9152) are made and used throughout rural China for everyday use and special occasions. Nearly every town or village has a distiller to supply the demand. In rural China, distilling <jats:italic>bai jiu<\/jats:italic> is legal and regulated lightly or not at all. The World Health Organization estimates that as much as 25% of all alcohol consumed in China is unrecorded alcohol, of which an unknown portion is unrecorded <jats:italic>bai jiu<\/jats:italic>. Little is known about the composition of unrecorded Chinese spirits from rural parts of the country. This study focused on white spirits because the high ethanol (EtOH) concentration makes them more likely to contribute to health risks compared to other types of lower alcohol by volume (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ABV<\/jats:styled-content>) Chinese unrecorded alcohol.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Researchers purchased samples of Chinese white spirits from small\u2010factory distillers in central China. An independent laboratory conducted the analysis. Alcohol strength (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ABV<\/jats:styled-content>) was determined by hydrometer. Gas chromatography was used to determine the concentration of volatile organic compounds: EtOH, methanol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, and higher alcohols. Samples were tested for 3 heavy metals\u2014arsenic, cadmium, and lead. We used the guidelines developed by the Alcohol Measures for Public Health Research Alliance (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">AMPHORA<\/jats:styled-content>) of the European Commission to assess risk.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ABV<\/jats:styled-content> ranged from 35.7 to 61.4%, and 58 of the 61 samples exceeded 40% <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ABV<\/jats:styled-content>. The concentration of methanol, ethyl acetate, lead, arsenic, and cadmium was below <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">AMPHORA<\/jats:styled-content> guideline. The sum of higher alcohols exceeded the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">AMPHORA<\/jats:styled-content> maximum in just 1 sample. Forty of the 61 samples had acetaldehyde levels beyond the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">AMPHORA<\/jats:styled-content> guideline.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The unrecorded Chinese alcohols we analyzed had a high EtOH concentration\u2014a public health concern that is also presented by recorded alcohols. The high percentage of samples (65.5%) that had elevated acetaldehyde suggests the need to investigate the causes for this result and the need for steps to reduce acetaldehyde levels. The cumulative long\u2010term risks of using high EtOH and high acetaldehyde Chinese spirits are heightened by the percentage of people in China who have a genetic trait for impaired acetaldehyde metabolism.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13280","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,17]],"date-time":"2016-12-17T16:35:14Z","timestamp":1481992514000},"page":"207-215","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Composition of Unrecorded Distilled Alcohol (<i>bai jiu<\/i>) Produced in Small Rural Factories in Central China"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Ian","family":"Newman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Psychology Nebraska Prevention Center for Alcohol and Drug Abuse University of Nebraska\u2010Lincoln Lincoln Nebraska"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Guidance &amp; Training Chinese Center for Health Education Beijing China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Niran","family":"Tamrakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Psychology Nebraska Prevention Center for Alcohol and Drug Abuse University of Nebraska\u2010Lincoln Lincoln Nebraska"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yonghua","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Psychology Nebraska Prevention Center for Alcohol and Drug Abuse University of Nebraska\u2010Lincoln Lincoln Nebraska"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ganrong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology School of Biotechnology Jiangnan University Wuxi China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2004.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","first-page":"119","article-title":"A comparison of concentrations of lead in human tissues","volume":"32","author":"Barry PS","year":"1975","journal-title":"Br\u00a0J Ind Med"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1368-5031.2004.00034.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","first-page":"20","article-title":"Commission Regulation (EC) No 2870\/2000 laying down community reference methods for the analysis of spirit drinks","volume":"333","author":"European Commission","year":"2000","journal-title":"Off J Europ Comm"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","unstructured":"1997 World Health Organization International Programme on Chemical Safety Geneva Switzerland L Fishbein Methanol. 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