{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T06:32:54Z","timestamp":1777962774435,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,4]],"date-time":"2023-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000027","name":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U01\/R01 AA015134"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01\/R01 AA015134"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000027","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>To explore and analyze the significance of proximal influences of maternal and paternal traits associated with bearing a child with a fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Aggregated, maternal interview\u2010collected data (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20092515) concerning alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use were examined to determine risk for FASD from seven cross\u2010sectional samples of mothers of first\u2010grade students who were evaluated for a possible diagnosis of FASD.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Mothers of children with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) reported the highest alcohol use throughout pregnancy, proportion of binge drinking, drinks per drinking day (DDD), drinking days per week, and total drinks per week. Mothers of children with FAS also consumed significantly more alcohol than mothers of children with partial FAS (PFAS), alcohol\u2010related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), or typically developing controls. Mothers of children with PFAS and ARND reported similar drinking patterns, which exposed fetuses to 3\u20134 times more alcohol than mothers of controls, but the PFAS group was more likely than the ARND group to abstain in latter trimesters. Fathers of all children were predominantly drinkers (70%\u201385%), but more fathers of children with FASD binged heavily on more days than fathers of controls. Compared to the few mothers of controls who used alcohol during pregnancy, the ARND group binge drank more (3+ DDD) throughout pregnancy and drank more DDD before pregnancy and first trimester. Regression analysis, controlling for tobacco use, indicated that mothers who reported drinking &lt;1 DDD were significantly more likely than abstainers to bear a child with FASD (OR\u2009=\u20092.75) as were those reporting higher levels such as 5\u20135.9 DDD (OR\u2009=\u200932.99). Exclusive, first\u2010trimester maternal drinking increased risk for FASD five times over that of abstinence (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001, OR\u2009=\u20095.05, 95% CI: 3.88\u20136.58), first\u2010 and second\u2010trimester drinking by 12.4 times, and drinking all trimesters by 16 times (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001, OR\u2009=\u200915.69, 95% CI: 11.92\u201320.64). Paternal drinking during and prior to pregnancy, without adjustment, increased the likelihood of FASD significantly (OR\u2009=\u20091.06 and 1.11, respectively), but the significance of both relationships disappeared when maternal alcohol and tobacco use were controlled.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Differences in FASD risk emerged from the examination of multiple proximal variables of maternal alcohol and tobacco use, reflecting increased FASD risk at greater levels of maternal alcohol consumption.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.15193","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,22]],"date-time":"2023-09-22T04:31:54Z","timestamp":1695357114000},"page":"2090-2109","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Maternal and paternal risk factors for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Alcohol and other drug use as proximal influences"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"47","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1939-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip A.","family":"May","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrition Research Institute The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill  Kannapolis North Carolina USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Stellenbosch University  Cape Town South Africa"},{"name":"Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse and Addictions The University of New Mexico  Albuquerque New Mexico USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julie M.","family":"Hasken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrition Research Institute The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill  Kannapolis North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marlene M.","family":"de Vries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Stellenbosch University  Cape Town South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna\u2010Susan","family":"Marais","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Stellenbosch University  Cape Town South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Omar","family":"Abdul\u2010Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, New York\u2010 Presbyterian Weill Cornell Medicine Columbia University  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luther K.","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics State University of New York  Buffalo New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Margaret P.","family":"Adam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics University of Washington  Seattle Washington USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Melanie A.","family":"Manning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology and Pediatrics Stanford University School of Medicine  Stanford California USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wendy O.","family":"Kalberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse and Addictions The University of New Mexico  Albuquerque New Mexico USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Buckley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse and Addictions The University of New Mexico  Albuquerque New Mexico USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Soraya","family":"Seedat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Stellenbosch University  Cape Town South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9787-2785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles D. 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