{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T17:58:35Z","timestamp":1790359115127,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,8]],"date-time":"2022-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Addiction"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background and aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Synthetic opioids, mostly illegally manufactured fentanyl (IMF), were mentioned in 60% of United States (US) drug overdose deaths in 2020, with dramatic variation across states that mirrors variation in IMF supply. However, little is known about IMF markets in the United States and how they are changing. Researchers have previously used data from undercover cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine purchases and seizures to examine how their use and related harms respond to changes in price and availability. This analysis used US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) data to address two questions: (i) \u201cTo what extent does IMF supply vary over time and geography?\u201d and (ii) \u201cWhat has happened to the purity\u2010adjusted price of IMF?\u201d<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We developed descriptive statistics and visualizations using data from 66\u2009713 observations mentioning IMF and\/or heroin from the DEA's System to Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE; now STARLIMS) from 2013 to 2021. Price regressions were estimated with city\u2010level fixed effects examining IMF\u2010only powder observations with purity and price information at the low\u2010to\u2010medium wholesale level (&gt;1\u2009g to \u2264100\u2009g;\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009964).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      From 2013 to 2021, the share of heroin and\/or IMF observations mentioning IMF grew from near zero to more than two\u2010thirds. The share of heroin observations also containing IMF grew from &lt;1% to ~40%. There is important geographic variation: in California, most IMF seizures involved counterfeit tablets, whereas New York and Massachusetts largely involved powder formulation. The median price per pure gram of IMF powder sold at the &gt;10 to \u2264100\u2009g level fell by more than 50% from 2016 to 2021; regression analyses suggested an average annual decline of 17% (\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001). However, this price decline appears to have been driven by observations from the Northeast.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Since 2013, the illegally manufactured fentanyl problem in the United States has become more deadly and more diverse.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15942","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]],"date-time":"2022-05-11T04:08:52Z","timestamp":1652242132000},"page":"2745-2749","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Rapid changes in illegally manufactured fentanyl products and prices in the United States"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"117","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9333-8080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beau","family":"Kilmer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RAND Drug Policy Research Center  Santa Monica CA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9690-7875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryce","family":"Pardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAND Drug Policy Research Center  Arlington VA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3992-2710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toyya A.","family":"Pujol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAND Drug Policy Research Center  Arlington VA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7748-9989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan P.","family":"Caulkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carnegie Mellon University\u2010Heinz College  Pittsburgh PA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","unstructured":"HedegaardH. BastianB. A. TrinidadJ. P. SpencerM. WarnerM.Drugs most frequently involved in drug overdose deaths: United States 2011\u20132016.2018."},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HedegaardH. Mini\u00f1oA. SpencerM. WarnerM.Drug overdose deaths in the United States 1999\u20132020. NCHS Data Brief No. 428. Natl Cent Health Stat.2021.","DOI":"10.15620\/cdc:112340"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","unstructured":"Commission on Combating Synthetic Opioid Trafficking.Commission on Combating Synthetic Opioid Trafficking: Final Report. Rep Comm Combat Synth Opioid Traffick 2022 [Internet]. 2022 Feb 8 [cited 2022 Apr 4]; Available from:https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/external_publications\/EP68838.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2019.04.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108416"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2021.3292"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.14666"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2019.107779"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15260"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2022.109398"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","unstructured":"Commission on Combating Synthetic Opioid Trafficking.Commission on Combating Synthetic Opioid Trafficking: Technical Appendixes. Rep Comm Combat Synth Opioid Traffick 2022 [Internet].2022Feb 8 [cited 2022 Apr 4]; Available from:https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/external_publications\/EP68839.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.12628"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2016.04.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.99.1.324"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","volume-title":"Developing a price series for cocaine","author":"Caulkins JP","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15833"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15847"}],"container-title":["Addiction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/add.15942","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/add.15942","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/add.15942","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]],"date-time":"2023-08-21T22:25:53Z","timestamp":1692656753000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/add.15942"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,8]]},"references-count":17,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/add.15942"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/add.15942","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0965-2140","1360-0443"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0965-2140","type":"print"},{"value":"1360-0443","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-04-06","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-04-19","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-06-08","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}