{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T06:07:58Z","timestamp":1790143678887,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790035200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790035200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Addiction"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Aim<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To provide an overview and critical analysis of substance use and related problems in Nigeria within an evolving sub\u2010regional and regional markets and policy landscapes. The analysis covers epidemiology, prevention, treatment and harm reduction as well as policy and research.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The analysis is based on narrative synthesis of available academic and grey literature, policy documents and relevant reports produced by government and non\u2010governmental organizations. This synthesis captures trends in substance use, describes prevention and treatment programmes, analyses trends in policy and comments on the state of addiction science in Nigeria.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There is a long history of consumption of psychoactive substances in Nigeria. Alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use were seen as problems to be addressed before independence in 1960. Cocaine and heroin joined the list as a spillover effect of their trafficking through West African countries to western markets beginning in the 1980s. A recent trend is the rise in the use of synthetic substances (opioids, stimulants and depressants) across West Africa. The rising problem of substance use has evoked a response from government and civil society in the form of substance use prevention, treatment services for substance use disorders and essential harm reduction services for people who inject substances or consume opioids. Yet, these services are insufficient and people who use substances face barriers to accessing treatment and harm reduction. Despite some reforms, especially implementation of essential harm reduction services, enforcement\u2010based approaches remain dominant in Nigeria's policy as in most African countries. Commendably, mechanisms have been established to collate data on substance use and related harms at regional and sub\u2010regional levels, which has helped to shape public health responses to substance use at country level. Nigeria has also conducted national surveys of substance use, with support from international partners. Nevertheless, data collection remains irregular and more qualitative studies are needed to provide insights into contextual factors shaping substance use.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The rising level of substance use in Nigeria highlights the importance of a balanced and comprehensive policy that prioritizes demand and harm reduction measures. This requires funding for research to generate evidence to inform and shape interventions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/add.70594","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T05:35:24Z","timestamp":1790141724000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Substance use and related problems in Nigeria: Research and policy perspectives"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2555-1824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ediomo\u2010Ubong E.","family":"Nelson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA), Uyo  Akwa Ibom Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7207-0652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isidore S.","family":"Obot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA), Uyo  Akwa Ibom Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","volume-title":"Country programme document for Nigeria","author":"United Nations Population Fund","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","volume-title":"Nigeria multi\u2010dimensional poverty index (2022)","author":"National Bureau Statistics","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2024-018486"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","volume-title":"Human development report 2023\/2024","author":"United Nations Development Programme","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(92)90341-M"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/afraf\/adp017"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","volume-title":"Drug use in Nigeria","author":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/218605"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","first-page":"40","article-title":"Palm wine among the Ibibio","volume":"22","author":"Jeffreys MDW","year":"1957","journal-title":"Niger Field"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","volume-title":"Alcohol in colonial Africa","author":"Pan L","year":"1975"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-3289(00)00047-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00952990.2019.1628244"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0004019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","volume-title":"Global status report on alcohol and health 2018","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-8010-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/SAR.S526190"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0376-8716(90)90130-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0376-8716(92)90100-Q"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","volume-title":"Nigeria demographic and health survey","author":"National Population Commission","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-020-00292-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmqr.2022.100165"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/16066359.2026.2624375"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/16066359.2021.1895125"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022042620912805"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_26_1","volume-title":"Mapping synthetic drug markets in West Africa","author":"Bird L","year":"2026"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_27_1","unstructured":"NelsonEE KlantschnigG OgundairoJ.Drugs and violent conflicts in north\u2010Central Nigeria: the views of key actors in Benue and plateau states.2026.http:\/\/spring\u2010nigeria.com\/wp\u2010content\/uploads\/2025\/08\/Drugs\u2010and\u2010Violent\u2010Conflicts\u2010in\u2010North_Fina_Report.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043731"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2021.108966"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2021.103251"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-023-00589-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_32_1","unstructured":"NelsonE.Harm reducing programmes for people who inject drugs in Nigeria: challenges in implementation and sustainability. Policy Brief2024;20.https:\/\/www.swansea.ac.uk\/media\/Policy-Brief-20.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_11_33_1","article-title":"Direct medical cost of treating substance use disorders in two tertiary hospitals in south\u2010west, Nigeria: A cross\u2010sectional study","volume":"2022","author":"Ilomuanya M","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Addict"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14659891.2022.2047809"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1747-597X-6-25"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_36_1","volume-title":"Less than 250 psychiatrists left in Nigeria \u2013 and more leaving says association","author":"Are J","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14659891.2024.2403076"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_38_1","unstructured":"Harm Reduction International.Global state of harm reduction report.2025.https:\/\/hri.global\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/HRI_GS_UPDATE_2025_v3-1.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_39_1","unstructured":"International Society of Substance Use Professionals.An overview of harm reduction policy in some Nigerian communities;2025.https:\/\/www.issup.net\/knowledge\u2010share\/resources\/2025\u201010\/overview\u2010harm\u2010reduction\u2010policy\u2010some\u2010nigerian\u2010communities\u20100"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_40_1","unstructured":"Harm Reduction International\/Youth Rise Nigeria.Harm reduction note \u2010 Nigeria;2025.https:\/\/hri.global\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/Nigeria.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022278X09990036"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/DAT-07-2019-0033"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_43_1","volume-title":"At the crossroads of licit and illicit: tramadol trafficking in West Africa","author":"European Union\/United Nations Office Drugs and Crime","year":"2021"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/soin.12649"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2018.79.318"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_46_1","volume-title":"WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czab095"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2021-056540"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12117-023-09482-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_50_1","volume-title":"Telling the story of drugs in West Africa: the newest front in a losing war?","author":"Csete J","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31389\/jied.179"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_52_1","volume-title":"Cannabis cultivation in Nigeria","author":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_53_1","volume-title":"Availability and use of psychoactive substances in Nigeria: qualitative and quantitative studies in diverse settings","author":"Obot IS","year":"2019"}],"container-title":["Addiction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/add.70594","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/add.70594","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/add.70594","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T05:35:30Z","timestamp":1790141730000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/add.70594"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"references-count":52,"alternative-id":["10.1111\/add.70594"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/add.70594","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0965-2140","1360-0443"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0965-2140","type":"print"},{"value":"1360-0443","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-05-21","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-08-24","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-22","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"add.70594"}}