{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T13:46:51Z","timestamp":1791380811178,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3-4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,29]],"date-time":"2018-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1540771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":181,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American J Econ Sociol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Despite two decades of declining crime rates, the United States continues to incarcerate a historically and comparatively large segment of the population. Moreover, incarceration and other forms of criminal justice contact ranging from police stops to community supervision are disproportionately concentrated among African American and Latino men. Mass incarceration, and other ways in which the criminal justice system infiltrates the lives of families, has critical implications for inequality. Differential rates of incarceration damage the social and emotional development of children whose parents are in custody or under community supervision. The removal through incarceration of a large segment of earners reinforces existing income and wealth disparities. Patterns of incarceration and felony convictions have devastating effects on the level of voting, political engagement, and overall trust in the legal system within communities. Incarceration also has damaging effects on the health of families and communities. In short, the costs of mass incarceration are not simply collateral consequences for individuals but are borne <jats:italic>collectively<\/jats:italic>, most notably by African Americans living in acutely disadvantaged communities that experience high levels of policing and surveillance. In this article, we review racial and ethnic differences in exposure to the criminal justice system and its collective consequences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/ajes.12241","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,29]],"date-time":"2018-10-29T12:12:59Z","timestamp":1540815179000},"page":"1153-1182","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":103,"title":["Mass Incarceration and Racial Inequality"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"77","author":[{"given":"Becky","family":"Pettit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmen","family":"Gutierrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_5_2_1","article-title":"Survey on Prison Populations (SPACE I\u2010Prison Populations Survey 2015)","author":"Aebi Marcelo F.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Council of Europe Annual Penal Statistics Council of Europe Annual Penal Statistics"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/sp.2010.57.3.448"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108553599"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2011.07.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa064115"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3998\/mpub.17629"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-3710"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128713514801"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5893.2011.00448.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burch Traci. (2013). Trading Democracy for Justice: Criminal Convictions and the Decline of Neighborhood Political Participation. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226065090.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2007.00084.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_14_1","volume-title":"Prisoners in 2016","author":"Carson E. Ann.","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195305791.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112829"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716215625038"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt1t89g6k"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/79.3.434"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_20_1","first-page":"457","article-title":"Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race, and Disorder in New York City","volume":"28","author":"Fagan Jeffrey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fordham Urban Law Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18574\/nyu\/9780814776155.003.0013"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_22_1","first-page":"1551","article-title":"Reciprocal Effects of Crime and Incarceration in New York City Neighborhoods","volume":"30","author":"Fagan Jeffrey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fordham Urban Law Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S104909650300218X"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/sp.2007.54.4.399"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446221228"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-010-0009-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/692670"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12111-001-1014-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716213477070"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_30_1","volume-title":"A Pound of Flesh: Monetary Sanctions as Punishment for the Poor","author":"Harris Alexes.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/651940"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0003122411400054"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_33_1","volume-title":"U.S. Rates of Incarceration: A Global Perspective","author":"Hartney Christopher.","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/501089"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/harvard.9780674735842"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_36_1","first-page":"173","volume-title":"Qualitative Methods in Family Research","author":"Jarrett Robin.","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/597102"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_38_1","volume-title":"Probation and Parole in the United States, 2016","author":"Kaeble Danielle.","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_39_1","volume-title":"Correctional Populations in the United States, 2016","author":"Kaeble Danielle","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/655754"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716211431818"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-criminol-032317-092045"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.96.3.863"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/674743"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23943\/9781400890354"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PAF.0b013e3181873784"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716215625053"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-5113-6_12","volume-title":"Handbook of Life\u2010Course Criminology","author":"Lageson Sarah E.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_49_1","volume-title":"Police Behavior During Traffic and Street Stops, 2011","author":"Langton Lynn","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_50_1","volume-title":"Returning Home Illinois Policy Brief: Prisoner Reentry and Residential Mobility","author":"La Vigne Nancy G.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-070308-115940"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1742058X15000065"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716213502920"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12114-011-9112-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301504"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr327"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9125.12000"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_58_1","volume-title":"Prisoner Reentry in Perspective","author":"Lynch James P.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_59_1","volume-title":"Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy","author":"Manza Jeff","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10940-014-9231-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002214650804900105"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5893.2008.00342.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0003122412471669"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073014-112326"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2010.02990.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/381290"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128714568427"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_68_1","volume-title":"Final Technical Report: Neighborhoods, Recidivism, and Employment Among Returning Prisoners","author":"Morenoff Jeffrey D.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-071811-145511"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_70_1","volume-title":"Race and Hispanic Origin of Victims and Offenders, 2012\u201315","author":"Morgan Rachel E.","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_71_1","volume-title":"Working Paper","author":"Mueller\u2010Smith Michael","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716213502928"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/e378362004-001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_74_1","volume-title":"Parents Behind Bars: What Happens to Their Children?","author":"Murphey David","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.58.4.389"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-lawsocsci-120814-121742"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2017.05.011"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_5_78_1","first-page":"811","article-title":"The President\u2019s Role in Advancing Criminal Justice Reform","volume":"130","author":"Obama Barack","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harvard Law Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/374403"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226644851.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.0.0123"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2136956"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_83_1","volume-title":"When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry","author":"Petersilia Joan","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_84_1","volume-title":"Invisible Men: Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress","author":"Pettit Becky","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_85_1","volume-title":"The State of the Union: The Poverty and Inequality Report","author":"Pettit Becky","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240406900201"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_87_1","volume-title":"Collateral Costs: Incarceration\u2019s Effect on Economic Mobility","author":"Pew Charitable Trusts","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1462474516649174"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_89_1","volume-title":"Expanding the Vote: State Felony Disenfranchisement Reform, 1997\u20132010","author":"Porter Nicole D.","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146514533119"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9125.12042"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716210393321"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.121855"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2011.04.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/DAED_a_00020"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5328.918"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.polisci.7.012003.104840"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002214650704800202"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_99_1","volume-title":"Poverty and Opportunity Profile: Americans with Criminal Records","author":"Sentencing Project.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_100_1","volume-title":"Felony Disenfranchisement","author":"Sentencing Project","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-017-0611-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226370958.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1540-5893.3703002"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7758\/rsf.2016.2.6.07"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716214526345"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7758\/rsf.2015.1.2.06"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_107_1","volume-title":"The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences","author":"Travis Jeremy","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/652233"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jels.12055"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_110_1","volume-title":"Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts","author":"Tyler Tom R.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00520.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_112_1","volume-title":"6 Million Lost Voters: State\u2010Level Estimates of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States, 2016","author":"Uggen Christopher","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_113_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3088970"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716206286898"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9125.12051"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_116_1","article-title":"Key Statistic: Total Correctional Population","author":"U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics","year":"1980","journal-title":"Data from annual reports: Annual Survey of Jails, Census of Jail Inmates, and National Prisoner Statistics Program"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_117_1","unstructured":"U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1980\u20132016).Crime in the United States. Uniform Crime Reports.Washington DC:U.S. Department of Justice.https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/ucrdata\/Search\/Crime\/State\/StatebyState.cfm."},{"key":"e_1_2_5_118_1","unstructured":"U.S.National Cancer Institute. (1969\u20132017).Download U.S. Population Data.Bethesda MD:National Cancer Institute U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.https:\/\/seer.cancer.gov\/popdata\/download.html."},{"key":"e_1_2_5_119_1","volume-title":"Removing Barriers to Opportunity for Parents with Criminal Records and Their Children: A Two\u2010Generation Approach","author":"Vallas Rebecca","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_120_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0032885511415228"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/14624740122228276"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_122_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.012809.102551"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_123_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199989225.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_124_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055410000456"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_125_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3088944"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_126_1","volume-title":"Punishment and Inequality in America","author":"Western Bruce.","year":"2006"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_5_127_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/001979390005400101","article-title":"Incarceration and Racial Inequality in Men\u2019s Employment","volume":"54","author":"Western Bruce","year":"2000","journal-title":"Industrial and Labor Relations Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_128_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716208324850"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_129_1","article-title":"Family Matters? Voting Behavior in Households with Criminal Justice Contact.","author":"White Ariel.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Working Paper"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_130_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.0.0052"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Economics and Sociology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fajes.12241","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/ajes.12241","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,16]],"date-time":"2023-09-16T12:47:12Z","timestamp":1694868432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/ajes.12241"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,5]]},"references-count":129,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3-4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,5]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/ajes.12241"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajes.12241","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9246","1536-7150"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9246","type":"print"},{"value":"1536-7150","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2018-10-29","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}